THE 


YOUNG    MECHANIC 


CONTAINING 

(' 

DIRECTIONS  FOR    THE    USE   OF  ALL  KINDS  OF    TOOLS, 


>JD  FOR  THE 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  STEAM  ENGINES  AND 
MECHANICAL  MODELS, 


THE   ART   OF    TURNING   IN    WOOD   AND  METAL. 


AUTHOR  JF  "THE  LATHE  AND  ITS  USES" 
'  THE  AMATEUR  MECHANIC'S  WORKSHOP,"  &c. 


FROM  THE  ENGLISH  EDITION,  WITH  CORRECTIONS, 


G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 

NEW  YORK  LONDON 

27  WEST  TWENTY-THIRD   ST.  24    BEDFORD   ST.,    STRAND 


nithtrbothtr  |)ress 
1896 

CC10 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1871,  by 

G.  P.  PUTNAM  &  SONS, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  -Washington. 


\G  O 
L<?£>y 

INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  AMERICAN  EDITION, 


IN  presenting  the  American  edition  of  this  little  work  to  the 
public,  we  believe  we  are  supplying  a  want  that  has  long  been 
felt  by  the  Young  Mechanics  of  this  country,  and  many  others 
who  desire  to  become  versed  in  the  practical  use  of  tools.  We 
know  of  no  other  book  published  in  this  country  or  England,  in 
which  the  method  of  using  tools  is  so  clearly  explained ;  and 
although  written  more  especially  for  boys  and  beginners,  it  contains 
much  information  that  will  be  of  great  value  to  the  practical 
mechanic.  The  author  is  evidently  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
his  subject,  and  understands  how  to  communicate  his  ideas  in  a 
simple  and  concise  manner. 

The  first  six  chapters  are  devoted  to  the  description  of  Tools 
for  working  wood  and  the  manner  of  using  them,  beginning  with 
the  simplest  operations,  requiring  but  few  tools,  and  gradually 
leading  on  to  the  more  difiicult,  giving  examples  of  all  the 
methods  of  joining  and  finishing  work  that  are  in  common  use 
among  good  workmen,  and  in  this  connection  we  would  like  to 
call  attention  to  the  small  number  of  tools  the  author  requires 
for  performing  all  these  different  operations,  the  idea  among 
amateurs  and  boys  generally  being,  that  if  you  only  have  tools 
enough  you  can  make  anything.  This  is  not  so,  and  if  the  begin- 
ner will  follow  the  advice  of  the  author,  and  buy  a  few  good 
tools,  and  learn  the  use  of  them  thoroughly,  and  gradually  add 
to  his  stock  as  his  knowledge  of  their  use  increases,  he  will  find 
it  greatly  to  his  advantage. 

The  next  five  chapters  relate  to  the  lathe,  and  the  art  of  turn- 
ing. The  author  follows  the  same  plan  as  in  the  first  part  of  the 
book,  and  gives  more  practical  information  in  these  few  pages 
than  we  have  seen  in  any  other  book  on  the  subject,  most  of  them 
being  written  apparently  for  finished  mechanics,  and  not  for 
beginners.  The  Art  of  Turning  as  an  amusement,  is  beginning 
to  attract  considerable  attention  in  this  country,  but  not  so  much 


n  INTRODUCTION. 

as  it  deserves  and  would  obtain,  if  it  were  more  generally  known 
how  many  beautiful  and  useful  articles  can  be  produced  in  the 
lathe.  The  expense  of  the  necessary  tools  has  deterred  many 
from  attempting  to  learn  this  branch  of  mechanics ;  but  we  believe 
if  any  one  has  the  time  and  patience  to  devote  to  the  work,  they 
will  never  have  occasion  to  regret  the  money  spent  for  thia 
purpose. 

The  last  four  chapters  contain  practical  instruction  in  model- 
making  and  working  in  metal.  This  part  of  the  book  we  would 
particularly  recommend  to  inventors  who  desire  to  make  their  own 
models,  as  it  contains  information  in  regard  to  files,  drills,  and 
the  various  small  tools  used  on  metal,  and  also  directions  for  lay- 
ing out  work,  which  are  invaluable  to  a  novice  in  such  operations, 
and  will  save  him  much  time  and  trouble. 

As  this  book  was  originally  published  in  London,  where  tha 
facilities  for  getting  many  kinds  of  small  tools  are  better  than  in 
this  country,  perhaps  a  little  advice  as  to  the  best  way  of  getting 
such  tools  as  may  be  required  will  not  be  out  of  place.  In  most 
of  the  large  Hardware  Stores,  carpenters'  tools  will  be  found,  put 
up  in  chests,  at  prices  varying  from  five  to  fifty  dollars  or  more ; 
but  we  should  not  advise  the  amateur  to  buy  any  of  these,  as  tho 
quality  of  the  tools  is  not  always  reliable,  and  as  they  are  usually 
fitted  up  to  make  as  much  show  as  possible  for  the  money,  they 
contain  many  tools  which  are  of  very  little  use.  The  best  way 
is  to  make  a  list  of  the  tools  required,  and  select  them  for  your- 
self. The  most  important  thing  is  to  have  the  Cutting  tools  of 
good  quality.  We  give  below  the  names  of  some  of  the  best 
makers  of  tools ;  if  you  purchase  any  of  these,  you  may  be  sure 
of  the  quality. 

On  Saws, — HENRY  DISSTON,  GROVES  &  SON. 
On  Chisels  and  Gouges, — BUCK  BROS,  MOULSON  BROS. 
On  Plane  Irons, — MOULSON  BROS.,  WM.  BUTCHER. 
On  Files, — P.  S.  STUBS,  GREAVES  <fe  SON,  EARL  &  Co. 
On  Rules  and  Squares, — STANLEY  RULE  AND  LEVEL  Co. 


INTRODUCTION.  Ill 

If  you  live  in  the  City,  you  will  probably  find  no  difficulty  in 
procuring  some  of  the  above  makes ;  but  if  you  cannot  find  them* 
there  are  some  others  that  are  good,  and  you  must  rely  somewhat 
on  the  dealer.  In  regard  to  the  probable  cost  of  the  tools,  a  set 
such  as  is  described  on  pages  29  and  30,  would  cost  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  dollars. 

Of  Foot  Lathes,  the  following  are  some  of  the  makers : 

N.  H.  BALDWIN,  Laconia,  N.  H. 
GOODNOW  &  WIGHTMAN,  Boston,  Mass. 
AMERICAN  TOOL  Co.  "          " 

G.  L.  CADY,  Lowell,  Mass. 
EXETER  MACHINE  Co.,  Exeter,  N.  H. 
JAS.  STEWART'S  SONS,  New  York. 

From  some  of  the  above  the  amateur  will  probably  be  able  to 
select  a  Lathe  to  suit  him  in  size  and  price.  The  lowest  price  at 
which  a  serviceable  lathe  can  be  bought  is  about  forty  dollars  * 
this  is  without  tools  or  chucks.  About  fifteen  dollars  more  would 
be  required  for  these.  Lathes  can  be  bought  from  this  price  up 
to  hundreds  of  dollars,  according  to  the  style  of  lathe  and  the 
number  of  chucks,  but  of  course  the  beginner  would  not  need 
an  expensive  lathe,  and  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  dollars  would 
buy  a  lathe  and  tools  suitable  for  all  kinds  of  small  work  in 
wood,  ivory,  or  metal. 


This  volume  being  an  exact  reprint  of  the  English  edition,  it  may  be 
well  to  explain  that  the  material  called  Deed  in  England  is  much  the  same 
as  our  Pine.  The  article  called  in  England  a  "  Carrier,"  is  with  us  called 
a  dog  (see  pp.  112,  114,  115).  Articles  priced  in  English  currency  would 
cost  here  now  about  35  cents  to  the  English  shilling,  or  $7  per  £  stg. 


PREFACE. 


F  all  people  in  the  world  who  must  not  b« 
neglected  are,  first  and  foremost,  "  Our  Boys," 
and,  of  all  boys,  mechanical  boys  deserve  a  very 
high  place  in  our  estimation.  Whatever  others 
may  be,  these,  at  any  rate,  are  possessed  of  sound  heads, 
and  willing  hands.  Therefore,  to  help  these  to  carry  out 
their  designs,  appears  to  be  a  special  duty  of  those  who, 
once  mechanical  boys  themselves,  have  lived  to  become  the 
progenitors  of  others.  In  fulfilment  of  this  very  duty  I 
have  taken  up  the  pen,  and  with  special  reference  to  young 
mechanics,  but  without  entirely  forgetting  those  of  maturer 
growth,  I  have  thrown  together  a  few  hints  upon  that 
absorbing  question,  "  How  to  make  and  how  to  use  ?  "  In 
doing  this,  I  have  endeavoured  to  carry  out  the  plan  of 


PREFACE. 


small  beginnings,  going  from  the  simplest  and  easiest  to  tne 
more  complicated  and  difficult  work,  although  here  and 
there,  of  sheer  necessity,  a  somewhat  different  order  has  been 
observed.  The  workshops  of  King's  College  School  prove 
the  capabilities  of  boys  to  do  high-class  mechanical  work 
when  their  efforts  are  rightly  directed  by  a  master's  hand. 
Where  the  latter  cannot  be  obtained,  guide-books  must, 
however  insufficiently,  take  his  place ;  but  whether  instruc- 
tion in  mechanical  art  be  oral  or  otherwise,  practice  and 
perseverance  are  the  secrets  of  success. 

"  Qui  studet  optatam  cursu  oontingere  metam, 
Multa  tulit  feoitque  puer ;  eudavit  et  aluit" 


CONTENT^. 


I.   INTRODUCTORY,    . 

H.    HOW  TO  MAKE  A  CAGE,       .  .  . 

HI.    MORTICE  AND  TENON  JOINTINO,     . 
IV.    HOW  TO  MAKE  A  TABLE,    .  . 

T.    DOVETAILING  AND  MITRING, 
VI.    REBATING,  TONGUEING,  AND  GROOVING,    . 
VII.    THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC  AT  THE  LATHE, 

rni.  ON  WOODS  AND  MATERIALS  FOR  TURNIMQ, 

TX.    SHARPENING  AND  SETTING  TOOLS, 
X.    HAND-TURNING  IN  WOOD,  .  , 

XI.    HARD-WOOD  TURNING,        . 
XII.    HOW  TO  MAKE  A  STEAM -ENGINE,    . 

xin.  WATT'S  ENGINE,  .  . 

XIV.    HOW  TO  MAKE  AN  ENGINE,  .  . 

XV.    HARDENING  AND  TEMPERING  TOOLS, 


1 

15 
& 

49 

66 

89 
103 
122 
144 

163 
203 
226 
264 

281 
82* 


CHAPTER  I. 

HERE  never  was  a  time  when  a  taste  for  practical 
mechanics  was  so  general  among  boys  as  it  is 
now,  in  this  year  of  grace  1870.  There  are 
comparatively  few  homes  in  which  evidences  of 
this  hobby  are  not  apparent  in  every  odd  nook  and  corner, 
in  the  shape  of  carpenter's  tools,  not  always  in  first-nite 
condition,  nor  by  any  means  generally  in  their  proper 
places.  A  saw  here,  a  hammer  there,  a  gimlet,  bradawl, 
or  chisel  elsewhere. 

This  probably  results  from  the  giant  strides  which  have 
been  made  of  late  years  in  mechanical  enterprise,  and  the 
introduction  of  machinery  into  every  department,  as  a  means 
of  saving  labour  and  facilitating  the  production  of  the 
various  necessaries  of  life. 

Man  is  an  imitative  animal,  and  in  this  as  in  other  things 
"  the  child  is  father  to  the  man ; "  and  hence  it  comes  to 
pass  that  the  boy  whose  eyes  are  continually  resting  upon 
machinery  of  one  sort  or  another  (agricultural  implements, 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


if  it  villager ;  engines  for  planing,  sawing,  turning,  and  so 
forth,  if  resident  in  a  town)  sooner  or  later  feels  an  innalo 
desire  to  construct  models  of  these  gigantic  mechanical 
labourers,  by  whose  incessant  but  unfelt  toil  our  several 
daily  needs  are  so  cheaply  and  plentifully  supplied. 

Even  if  the  youthful  mind  does  not  always  display 
highly-developed  inventive  faculties,  there  is  very  gener- 
ally manifested  a  desire  of  personally  constructing  some 
one  or  more  of  those  articles  which  conduce  to  the  gratifi- 
cation of  a  particular  hobby.  If  the  boy  has  a  taste  for 
natural  history,  cases  and  cabinets  will  be  made,  for  the 
reception  of  eggs,  butterflies,  and  insects,  or  to  contain 
stuffed  specimens  of  animals  and  birds.  If  he  has  within 
him  the  elements  of  a  sailor,  his  ingenuity  will  be 
exercised  upon  model  boats  and  ships.  If  fond  of  dumb 
pets,  rabbit  hutches,  dove-cots,  or  cages  will  afford  him 
opportunities  for  the  exercise  of  his  constructive  powers, 
and  thus  the  young  mechanic  frequently  lays  the  founda- 
tion of  future  eminence  in  that  particular  line  of  life  to 
which  his  tastes  naturally  lead  him. 

There  are  few  boyish  hobbies  in  which  assistance  has 
not  of  late  years  been  given  by  instruction  books  and  guides 
of  a  high  degree  of  excellence — natural  history,  botany, 
gardening,  rearing  and  breeding  all  manner  of  pets — to 
each  of  these,  well-written  volumes  have  been  devoted 
by  able  and  experienced  writers,  but  mechanical  and 


"SMALL  BOYS  NEED  FEW  TOOLS."  3 

constructive  art  has  been  somewhat  neglected.  Here  and 
there,  in  periodical  magazines,  a  few  pages  are  dedicated 
to  the  subject,  but  no  book  about  practical  mechanics, 
written  expressly  for  boys,  has  yet  appeared. 

The  author  of  the  present  volume,  himself  father  of  four 
lads,  all  of  whom  in  turn  occasionally  try  their  hands  at 
this  kind  of  work,  and  who  has  himself  for  many  years 
practised  the  mechanical  arts  of  carpentry,  turning,  and 
model-making,  hopes  that  the  hints  contained  herein  may 
prove  valuable  to  those  young  friends  whom  he  now  ad- 
dresses. Some  of  the  following  chapters  will  be  arranged 
for  very  little  boys,  some  for  those  who  are  older,  while  it 
is  believed  that  other  parts  of  the  work  may  not  prove 
altogether  useless  10  those  who  have  dropped  jacket  and 
knickerbockers  and  rejoice  in  the  vigour  of  manhood. 
Thus  the  little  boy,  who  receives  the  book  as  a  present, 
will  find  it  a  fast  and  faithful  friend  as  his  years,  and,  we 
trust,  knowledge  and  bodily  powers  increase. 

"  Small  boys  need  few  tools,  but  much  perseverance." 
Let  this  be  their  motto,  as  it  will  stand  them  in  good 
stead.  A  pocket-knife,  gimlet,  hammer,  and  a  few  nails 
will  generally  serve  their  purpose ;  but  there  is  one  other 
tool,  namely,  a  square,  which  is  of  great  importance,  and 
of  which  it  is  well  to  learn  the  use  as  enrly  as  possible. 
A  small  saw  and  a  bradawl  may  also  be  added  to  the  list, 
and  likewise  a  chisel  half  an  inch  wide.  Thus  equipped, 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


a  very  youthful  carpenter  can  do  a  good  deal,  and,  let  me 
tell  him,  a  good  deal  has  been  often  done  without  even 
this  moderate  supply  of  tools.  It  must  be  taken  for 
granted  that  the  knife  and  chisel  are  sharp,  because  blunt 
tools  make  bad  work,  and  by  far  the  best  plan  for  small 
boys  is  to  get  some  friend  to  sharpen  them  when  blunt,  as 
the  operation  is  not  easy  and  requires  practice.  It  is  a  very 
foolish  plan  to  try  and  work  with  a  blunt  knife,  for  the 
fingers  are  just  as  much  in  danger ;  and  a  boy  who  intends 
to  learn  how  to  use  tools  must  learn  at  the  commencement 
to  use  them  with  due  care,  so  as  not  to  damage  himself. 

There  are  small  boxes  of  tools  sold,  containing  generally 
a  wooden  mallet,  saw,  plane,  chisel,  and  gimlet,  at 
about  3s.  6d.  or  even  5s.  Such  a  box  is  simply  useless. 
The  tools  are  of  iron — will  not  take  a  good  edge,  and  are 
generally  disposed  to  bend  and  twist.  Avoid  these,  and 
buy,  or  get  a  friend  to  buy,  those  I  have  named,  of  good 
quality,  and  be  sure  to  take  care  of  them,  for  which  pur- 
pose you  may  try  your  hand  at  making  a  box.  For  this 
purpose,  you  will  require  some  thin  board  (half-inch  thick) 
planed  on  both  sides.  (The  carpenter  will  prepare  this  for 
you.)  Let  us  see  how  much  you  will  need.  Measure  your 
longest  tool,  the  chisel  or  saw,  if  the  latter  is  quite  a  small 
one  fit  to  go  into  a  little  box ;  if  not,  it  can  be  hung  on  a 
nail,  and  you  can  make  your  box  to  contain  your  knife 
and  chisel  and  gimlets.  I  daresay  if  the  box  is  9  inches 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  BOX. 


long,  4  inches  wide,  and  3  inches  deep,  it  will  be  large 
enough  to  take  these  few  tools,  for  I  have  just  now  mea- 
sured such  a  hammer  and  chisel  as  I  have  recommended, 
and  find  them  each  about  9  inches  in  length.  The  top  and 
bottom  of  a  box  should  project  a  little  all  round,  so  that 
you  will  want  them  about  an  inch  and  a  half  wider  and 
longer,  which  will  also  allow  for  the  thickness  of  the  wood; 
for  you  must  remember  we  have  given  the  size  of  the  box 
inside.  To  make  this  clear,  I  shall  here  give  a  plan  of  the 
bottom  of  the  box  (Fig.  1). 


Fig.  a 

It  is  10^  inches  long,  and  5^  inches  wide.  The  broad 
black  line  shows  where  the  edges  of  the  sides  and  ends  will 
come,  these  being  half  an  inch  thick,  so  that  there  is  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  all  round  the  outside  as  a  border. 
Reckon  across  and  you  will  understand  this  better.  A 
quarter  of  an  inch  outside,  half  an  inch  for  the  black  line 
(equals  three-quarters  of  an  inch),  4  inches  for  the  inside 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


width,  half  an  inch  again  for  the  black  line,  and  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  outside  as  before, — altogether  making  5£  inches. 
Now  reckon  the  length.  A  quarter-inch  border,  half  an 
iDch  for  the  black  line,  9  inches  inside,  half  inch  for  the 
second  black  line,  and  another  quarter  outside — making 
10£  inches.  You  require,  therefore,  two  boards  10£  inches 
long  and  4£  wide  for  the  top  and  bottom.  Now  the  two 
long  sides  and  the  ends  are  to  be  3  inches  wide  to  form 
the  depth  of  the  box,  and  here  you  want  no  extra  width, 
but  as  the  inside  of  your  box  is  to  be  9  inches  long,  and 
the  sides  are  usually  nailed  over  the  ends,  like  Fig.  2, 
where  I  have  shown  them  put  together,  you  see  that  you 
must  have  the  sides  as  much  longer  than  9  inches  as  will 
allow  them  to  lap  over  the  ends ;  that  is,  half  an  inch  at 
each  end  where  I  have  made  them  black,  or  altogether,  one 
inch;  so  that  you  will  want  two  pieces  10  inches  long  and 
3  wide.  The  ends  will  be  also  3  inches  wide  and  4  inches 
the  other  way,  and  here  no  additional  size  is  needed.  Now, 
the  usual  way  to  cut  the  sides  is  to  get  a  narrow  strip 
of  board  of  the  required  width  and  thickness,  and  long 
enough  to  make  both  the  sides  and  ends,  just  such  a  piece 
as  Fig.  3,  on  which  are  marked  the  lines  where  it  will  have 
to  be  cut  across,  and  you  will  easily  perceive  that  you  re- 
quire 28  inches  in  length  and  3  in  width. 

But  you  must  understand  that  when  you  cut  with  a  saw 
you  waste  a  little  of  the  wood,  which  falls  in  the  shape  of 


A  CARPENTER'S  RULE. 


sawdust,  and  so  if  you  did  not  allow  for  this,  your  box 
would  be  too  small.  The  waste  depends  on  the  thickness 
of  the  edge  of  the  saw,  where  you  will,  if  you  examine  it, 
see  that  the  teeth  spread  out  right  and  left  to  prevent  it 
from  sticking  fast  as  it  is  used.  Probably,  you  would 
waste  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  which  is  nearly  half  an  inch 
in  cutting  off  the  pieces,  so  that  instead  of  a  piece  exactly 
28  inches  long,  you  must  have  it  28£  inches,  or  even  a 
little  more. 

I  want  you  to  understand  all  this  before  you  set  to  work, 
even  though  at  first  you  may  get  a  carpenter  to  measure 
and  cut  it  for  you;  because  most  small  boys  take  no  trouble 
of  this  kind,  and  consequently  they  are  sure  to  make  their 
boxes  too  large  or  too  small,  and  they  look  very  bad  when 
done.  However,  as  I  said  before,  I  expect  my  young 
readers  to  understand  what  they  are  about,  and  they  must 
set  out  their  work  carefully,  or  they  will  never  get  on  so  as 


Fig  4. 

to  be  able  to  make  good  use  of  the  later  chapters  of  this 
book     A  carpenter's  rule  is  made  like  this  (Fig  4\ 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


Sometimes  there  is  a  brass  slide,  to  add  to  its  length 
when  necessary,  and  sometimes  it  is  hinged  so  as  to  fold  up 
again.  If  you  want  one  for  your  box,  you  can  get  it  so 
made,  when  it  will  go  in  nicely.  It  is  2  feet  long — 1  foot 
on  each  side  of  the  central  joint.  A  foot  is  12  inches  ;  the 
whole  rule,  therefore,  is  24  inches.  Now,  yon  will  see  that 
each  of  these  inches  is  divided  by  short  lines  into  eight 
equal  parts,  called  eighths ;  at  the  second,  the  line  is  rather 
longer,  this  being  a  quarter  of  an  inch  ;  at  the  fourth,  there 
is  a  still  longer  line,  this  being  the  half-inch  ;  then  comes 
another  eighth,  then  the  three-quarters,  another  eighth,  and 
the  inch  is  made  up, — eight-eighths  being  equal  to  one 
whole  inch.  Very  likely  you  will  find  one  edge  of  the  rule, 
or  sometimes  only  one  inch,  divided  into  smaller  parts, 
which  are  sixteenths,  or  half-eighths  ;  and  sometimes,  but 
not  very  often,  divisions  still  smaller  are  used,  which  are 
half-sixteenths,  or  thirty-seconds,  because  thirty-two  such 
divisions  make  the  complete  inch.  Three  feet  make  one 
yard,  but  carpenters  always  reckon  by  the  foot  and  inch, 
and  by  eighths  and  sixteenths  of  an  inch.  In  some  trades 
the  inch  is  divided  into  a  hundred  parts,  and  work  is  mea- 
sured up  and  fitted  so  carefully,  that  it  would  be  considered 
faulty  if  a  mistake  of  less  than  a  thousandth  of  an  inch  were 
made  ;  but  you  will  not  yet  understand  how  it  is  possible 
even  to  measure  so  very  small  a  quantity.  You  should 
certainly  learn  and  understand  how  to  measure  with  a 


7 HE  SQUARE. 


common  two-foot  rule,  and  when  you  can  add  one  to  youi 
box  of  tools,  do  so. 

Now,  let  us  examine  the  tool  called  a  square,  without 
which  the  marks  could  not  readily  be  drawn  as  a  guide  for 
the  Sirv,  where  the  strip  of  board  is  to  be  cut  to  make  the 
sides  and  ends  of  the  proposed  box.  Here  is  a  drawing  of 
one  (Fig.  5). 


J 


Fig  5. 


Fig.  6. 


It  is  a  handle  and  a  blade,  like  a  knife  half  opened,  the  onv, 
being  fixed  exactly  square,  or  at  right  angles  with  the 
other.  The  blade  is  thinner  than  the  handle,  and  when 
the  latter  is  placed  as  in  Fig.  6,  a  line  marked  across  the 
board  against  the  edge  of  the  blade  will  be,  of  course, 
square  to  the  side,  so  that  when  cut  off,  the  piece  will  be 
like  the  end  of  Fig.  6.  This  is  not  the  shape  which  the 
sides  of  boxes  generally  have  when  made  by  small  boys, 
because  they  have  not  a  square,  and  do  not  know  how  to 
work  properly.  Nevertheless,  if  one  end  of  a  board  is  cut 
square,  you  might  get  the  piece  right  by  measuring  the  same 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


distance  on  each  side  (say  10£  inches),  and  drawing  a  line 
across  from  point  to  point,  as  a  guide  for  the  course  of  the 
saw.  But,  then,  as  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  end 
of  the  board  should  be  square  to  the  side,  to  do  this  you 
had  better  get  a  proper  square  at  once,  and  learn  how  to 
use  it.  You  will,  indeed,  find  this  tool  most  necessary  for 
all  kinds  of  work,  and  you  will  be  quite  unable  to  do  with- 
out it,  even  though  you  only  have,  besides,  a  knife  and 
gimlet. 

Now,  if  you  want  to  cut  off  a  piece  of  board  with  the  saw, 
you  must  never  cut  out  the  line  you  have  marked  as  a  guide 
by  the  help  of  your  square,  because  if  you  do,  you  will  get 
the  piece  too  short,  owing  to  the  width  of  the  saw-cut 
which  I  explained  before.  Cut,  therefore,  just  beyond  it, 
leaving  it  upon  the  piece  you  are  going  to  use  for  the  side 
of  your  box,  or  other  article.  At  first,  you  will  find  it 
difficult  to  saw  neatly  and  close  to  the  line,  but  you  will 
get  used  to  it  very  soon  ;  and  if  the  saw  does  not  go  quite 
straight,  you  can  trim  the  piece  with  a  sharp  knife  neatly 
up  to  the  line,  which  you  see  you  could  not  do  if  you  cut 
out  that  line  by  sawing  exactly  upon  it.  All  these  direc- 
tions in  little  matters  are  very  important,  becau.se  you  will 
find  that,  by  attending  to  them,  you  will  work  well,  and 
the  various  things  you  make  will  look  neat  and  trim,  and 
be  fit  to  show  to  your  friends. 

Now,  let  us  go  on  with  the  box,  which  was  laid  down 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  BOX.  n 

j'ist  to  allow  a  little  explanation  about  the  carpenter's  rul« 
and  square.  I  shall  suppose  you  to  have  cut  off  all  the 
pieces  quite  squarely  and  neat,  and  that  the  edges  are  also 
square  to  the  sides,  which  you  must  take  care  to  insure  by 
keeping  the  blade  of  the  saw  upright  when  you  use  it.  It 
is  a  good  plan  to  measure  and  mark  both  sides  of  your 
board  for  this  purpose,  and  to  mark  the  edges  from  one  oi 
these  lines  to  the  other.  You  will  then  have  guide-marks 
all  round,. and,  by  keeping  close  to  these,  you  will  be  sure 
to  cut  your  work  truly.  It  would  not  so  much  signify  if 
the  long  sides  were  cut  a  trifle  too  long,  as  I  shall  explain 
presently ;  but  the  ends  must  be  square  and  true  to  mea- 
sure, 4  inches  by  3  inches.  You  must  now  proceed  to  nail 
them  together.  This  must  be  done  with  small  brads,  which 
are  fine  nails,  and  which  for  the  present  purpose  may  be 
one  inch  long.  If  your  pieces  are  all  exact  to  measure, 
draw  a  pencil  line  across  the  two  side  pieces,  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  from  the  ends,  by  the  help  of  the  square,  as  if  you 
wanted  to  cut  off  a  quarter  of  an  inch  at  each  of  those 
parts,  and  with  your  bradawl  make  two  or  three  holes 
(three  will  be  best)  along  those  lines.  Do  not  make  the 
first  and  last  too  near  the  edges,  or  you  will  split  the  wood, 
and  spoil  the  box.  Now  set  up  one  of  the  short  pieces,  and 
place  upon  it  the  piece  which  you  have  bored  holes  in.  If 
you  have  a  bench  with  a  vice,  you  can  screw  up  the  short 
piece  into  it ;  but  it  will  stand  up  very  well  upon  fcha 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


bench  if  you  have  no  vice.   '  It  is  now  in  the  position  of 
Fig.  7,  0. 


Hold  it  thus,  and  run  the  bradawl  a  little  way  into  the 
lower  piece,  through  the  holes  already  made  in  the  upper. 
Drive  a  brad  through  the  middle  hole  first,  which  will  hold 
it  together,  and  then  through  the  other  two  holes.  If  you 
have  been  careful,  you  will  find  this  corner  square  and 
neat,  and  the  wood  not  split  in  the  least.  Do  the  same 
with  the  other  short  piece,  and  then  nail  on  the  long  side 
that  is  left.  The  frame  of  the  box  will  now  be  complete. 
I  told  you  a  short  time  ago,  that  it  would  not  much 


TO  MAKE  A  BOX.  13 


signify  if  the  sides  were  cut  too  long.  The  reason  is  this: 
Suppose  B  to  be  the  side  half  an  inch  too  long.  You 
would  mark  off  9  inches  of  the  middle  by  two  lines  drawn 
with  the  square  as  before,  which  would  be  the  length  of 
the  inside  of  the  box  ;  you  would  then  place  the  inner 
edges  of  the  end  pieces  against  these  lines,  and  nail  them 
on  like  A,  and  afterwards  neatly  saw  off  the  two  pieces 
which  lap  over  these  at  each  end.  If  the  wood  is  likely  to 
split  when  the  holes  are  made  for  the  nails,  or  if  the  work- 
man is  pressed  for  time,  he  very  frequently  does  .his  work 
in  this  way,  and  then  cuts  it  off  and  planes  it  neatly.  It  is, 
however,  better  to  work  as  directed,  only  be  sure  to  bore 
holes  carefully  for  the  nails,  so  as  never  to  split  the  wood. 

No  very  special  directions  are  needed  about  putting  on 
the  bottom.  Leave  all  round  an  exactly  even  border  of  a 
quarter  of  an  inch,  and  after  it  is  nailed,  you  may  neatly 
round  off  all  its  edges,  to  give  it  a  finished  appearance. 

The  cover  is,  of  course,  to  be  attached  by  a  pair  of  small 
hinges.  Brass  hinges  are  the  neatest,  and  when  you  buy 
them,  ask  for  screws  to  match.  The  hinges  may  be  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  long,  and  they  will  be,  when  shut, 
about  half  an  inch  wide,  which  is  the  size  you  need.  Lay 
them  (shut  up)  upon  the  edge  of  the  back,  about  two  inches 
from  the  ends,  and  with  a  hard  pencil  cut  to  a  fine  point, 
or  with  the  point  of  your  bradawl,  make  a  mark  at  each 
end,  as  if  you  were  measiring  the  length  of  the  hinges  on 


i4  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

the  edge  of  the  box.     Between  these  marks  you  have  to  cut 
out  pieces  like  Fig.  8, 


Fig.  8. 

which  will  be  just  the  length  of  the  hinge? ,  and  deep 
enough  to  allow  them,  when  shut  up,  to  fit  and  lie  even 
with  the  top  e'dge  of  the  box.  Open  them,  make  holes 
with  the  bradawl,  and  put  in  the  'crews.  If  you  have  not 
a  screwdriver,  you  can  turn  them  with  the  end  of  an  old 
knife  ;  but  you  may  as  well  get  a  small  screwdriver,  for  if 
you  intend  to  do  good  work,  you  will  often  use  screws  in- 
stead of  nails.  Hinges  are  always  screwed  on.  Now  lay 
the  cover  in  place  carefully,  mark  its  position,  so  that  you 
have  some  sort  of  guide-line  to  direct  you,  and  then  by 
laying  the  cover  flat  on  the  bench,  and  standing  the  (open) 
box  on  its  side,  you  can  screw  on  the  hinges  upon  the 
cover.  Round  all  the  edges  of  the  cover  as  you  did  the 
bottom,  but  keep  the  edges  of  the  box  square  and  sharp; 
and  so  you  have  now  a  really  well-made  little  tool-chest. 
A  little  brass  hook  and  eye  will  do  to  fasten  it,  for  a  lock 
is  rather  difficult  for  a  small  boy  to  put  on. 


CHAPTER  II. 

HE  method  of  constructing  a  simple  box  has  been 
given  in  the  first  chapter,  because  so  many 
other  articles  are  made  upon  exactly  similar 
principles.  The  rules  laid  down  comprise  two 
or  three  essential  points,  the  neglect  of  which  render  the 
ordinary  carpentry  of  boys  so  essentially  bad.  Foremost 
of  these  is  the  use  of  the  square.  There  is  no  tool  of  more 
general  use  in  the  hands  of  workmen  in  wood  and  metal,  and 
yet,  generally  speaking,  either  none  at  all,  or  a  very  faulty 
one  is  added  to  the  collection  of  tools  ordinarily  supplied  to 
boys.  In  the  next  place,  I  have  insisted  upon  accuracy  in 
measurement.  The  carpenter's  rule  is  not  at  all  difficult 
for  a  young  boy  to  understand;  but  even  if  he  is  not  in 
possession  of  such  at  his  first  attempts,  he  should  always 
be  induced  to  work  by  measure  of  some  kind.  This  causes 
him  of  necessity  to  exercise  his  mind  as  well  as  his  hands, 
and  teaches  him  to  consider  well  at  starting  as  to  what  lie 
must  allow  for  thickness  of  wood,  the  difference  between 


1 6  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC, 

inside  and  outside  measurement,  and  so  forth;  all  this  will 
greatly  conduce  to  his  success,  and  consequently  satisfac- 
tion in  his  work,  and  will  lessen  the  chances  of  his  begin- 
ning a  number  of  articles  and  casting  them  aside  unfinished 
—a  propensity  too  common  in  all  boys. 

I  shall  now  resume  my  directions  in  the  first  person, 
which  I  think  is  the  more  easy  method  both  for  master 
and  pupil.  The  next  specimen  I  propose,  because  it  re- 
quires even  more  care  than  a  box,  but  is  at  the  same  time 
perfectly  within  a  boy's  powers,  is  a  birdcage.  Of  these 
there  are  such  a  number  of  varieties  that  it  is  difficult  to 
settle  upon  the  best  kind  to  begin  upon.  I  think,  how- 
ever, a  wire  cage  will  on  the  whole  be  the  easiest  to  con- 
struct, only  you  must  take  great  care  in  boring  holes  in  the 
thin  strips  of  wood,  and,  indeed,  if  you  can  get  a  birdcage- 
maker's  awl  besides  the  one  you  have,  it  will  save  both  time 
and  trouble.  It  is  not  made  round  with  a  flat  end,  but  is 
three-cornered  with  a  sharp  point,  so  that  it  has  three 
edges,  and  when  it  is  carefully  used  and  twirled  round  and 
round  by  the  fingers  in  making  holes,  it  will  hardly  ever 
split  even  very  thin  strips  and  pieces  of  wood.  However, 
if  you  cannot  get  one  never  mind,  you  must  use  the  com- 
mon bradawl  according  to  directions  here  given. 

I  shall  suppose  you  now  in  possession  of  a  carpenter'* 
rule,  and  that  you  have  carefully  learned  all  I  told  you  of 
the  inches  and  eighths,  so  that  you  may  be  able  to  measure 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  CAGE.  17 

and  mark  your  work  very  truly.  The  front  of  the  cage 
is  represented  in  Fig.  9,  before  the  projecting  roof-boarda 
have  been  put  on. 


Here  you  see  two  upright  strips  at  the  corners,  which  shall 
be  8  inches  long.  These  are  12  inches  apart,  outside 
measure.  They  are  f  (three-eighths)  of  an  inch  square, 
and  you  must  get  them  ready  planed  from  the  carpenter. 
There  will  be  four  of  them  required,  as  they  are  at  the  four 
corners  of  the  cage ;  so  that,  as  they  are  each  8  inches  long, 
you  can  get  a  strip  36  inches  in  length  by  three-eighths 
wide,  and  this  being  4  inches  more  than  you  need,  will 
allow  fur  waste.  At  the  lower  part  of  the  drawing,  you  see 
the  edge  of  the  bottom  board,  which  projects  a  little  all 
round.  As  the  outside  of  the  front  pillars  are  12  inches 


1 8  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

apart,  this  board  may  be  13  inches  long,  which  will  allow 
a  border  of  \  an  inch  (half  an  inch),  and  it  may  be  8  inches 
wide.  It  need  not  be  thicker  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch. 
A  little  above  this  board  (say  half  an  inch)  is  another 
board  from  one  pillar  to  another,  which  is  to  be  \\ 
inches  wide  and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick.  As  the 
pillars  are  also  three-eighths  thick,  and  their  outside  edges 
12  inches  apart,  you  must  take  |-  (six-eighths)  of  an  inch 
from  12  inches  to  find  the  length  of  this  board. 

If  you  look  at  the  divisions  upon  your  rule,  you  will  see 
that  six-eighths  of  an  inch  amounts  to  exactly  f  (three 
quartered,  <?o  that  your  board  must  be  11  inches  and  one 
quarter  long.  This  will  also  be  the  length  of  the  board  at 
the  top  where  it  falls  between  the  pillars,  and  this  too 
must  be  three-eighths  thick. 

I  shall  now  show  you  how  to  mark  and  cut  this  top 
piece  into  the  shape  here  sketched.  Cut  the  board  first 
of  all  into  an  oblong,  and  mind  that  you  mark  it  by 
your  square,  so  that  the  ends  thall  he  square  to  the 
sides.  Let  it  be  2£  inches  wide.  Here  it  is  (Fig.  10). 
Measure  a  length  of  6  inches  from  either  end  to  the  middle 
at  A,  and  make  a  mark  at  that  place.  Draw  a  line,  C  Br 
one  inch  from  the  opposite  side,  the  whole  length  of  the 
board,  and  mind  you  draw  it  correctly.  You  should  measure 
an  inch  at  B,  and  at  0,  and  then  draw  a  line  from  one 
point  to  the  other  along  the  edge  of  your  rule.  You  must 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  CAGE. 


now  draw  two  lines  from  the  spot  you  marked  at  A  to  the 
ends  of  this  line  (where  you  see  the  dotted  lines).     In 


Fig.  10. 

order  to  cut  this  piece,  you  must  begin  at  A,  not  at  B  or 
C,  or  else  if  the  saw  should  stick  you  will  be  sure  to  split 
off  a  strip  right  across  the  piece ;  but  if  it  should  stick 
when  you  are  cutting  from  A,  you  will  only  split  off  a  bit 
of  one  of  the  three-cornered  outside  pieces,  which  would 
not  signify  at  all. 

When  you  are  sawing,  be  sure,  as  I  told  you  before,  not 
to  cut  into  the  line  you  have  marked,  but  saw  just  outside 
it,  so  that  the  lines  will  be  left  upon  the  two  sloping  sides 
of  the  board.  You  may  cut  as  close  to  it  as  you  can,  but 
you  must  not  destroy  it,  and  then  you  can  with  your  knife 
neatly  shave  off  the  rough  edges  which  the  saw  has  made, 
until  you  have  pared  the  wood  quite  neatly  all  along  the 
line.  If  you  cut  this  line  out,  you  will  no  longer  have  any 
guide  to  work  by.  Cutting  out  guide  lines  is  a  very  com- 
mon fault,  not  confined  to  small  boys  or  big  ones.  You 
will  find  it  easy  to  pare  this  sloping  side  if  you  begin  to 


so  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


work  from  A  downwards  to  B  and  C,  but  you  cannot  cut  it 
in  the  other  direction.  A  carpenter  would,  of  course,  run 
his  plane  down  the  slope,  and  so  will  you  by  and  by  ;  but 
planing  is  difficult,  and  it  is  better  you  should  wait  for  a 
time  before  you  buy  a  plane ;  for,  remember,  those  foolish 
little  things  in  boys'  tool-boxes  are  no  use  at  all. 

You  had  better  now  prepare  the  holes  into  which  the 
wires  are  to  be  put  as  you  see  in  the  drawing.  You  can 
use  either  iron  wire  or  brass,  but  the  first  is  cheapest.  These 
will  have  to  be  a  quarter  of  an  inch  apart.  Both  the  top 
and  bottom  strips,  you  will  remember,  are  11  \  (eleven  and 
a  quarter)  inches  long.  Now,  11  inches  will  be  44  quar- 
ters, and  one  more  will  be  45 ;  but  as  the  first  hole  must  be 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  ends,  you  will  find  that  44 
holes  will  be  required.  Look  at  your  rule  and  count  this. 
You  must  mark  all  these  by  little  dots  with  a  pencil  on  one 
piece,  and  then  laying  the  other  upon  it,  mark  the  rest 
exactly  even  with  the  first.  Do  this  with  great  care,  or 
the  wires  will  not  stand  upright  when  the  cage  is  finished. 
The  space  between  the  top  and  bottom  pieces  will  be  5£ 
inches,  so  that  if  you  allow  the  wires  to  enter  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  at  the  top  and  bottom,  you  will  want  44  wires  5f 
inches  in  length — you  may  say,  6  inches.  You  can  have 
them  all  cut  and  straightened  for  you,  but  if  you  have  a 
pair  of  pliers  with  cutting  edges,  you  can  do  it  yourself, 
and  it  is  almost  necessary  you  should  get  a  pair,  or  borrow 


.     HOW  TO  MAKE  A  CAGE.  21 

them,  if  you  intend  to  construct  wire  birdcages.  You  will 
want  a  few  less  in  each  side  of  this  cage,  as  it  will  not  be 
there  so  wide  as  it  is  in  front.  "We  shall  presently  see  how 
many  it  will  require. 

You  may  put  together  the  front  of  the  cage  at  once  and 
set  it  aside,  or  proceed  to  cut  out  the  rest  of  it.  Gener- 
ally speaking,  it  is  the  best  plan  to  cut  out  and  prepare  all 
the  main  parts  of  your  work  before  proceeding  to  fix  them 
in  their  respective  places ;  but  the  front  of  such  a  cage  as 
I  am  describing,  being  complete  in  itself,  you  may  do  as 
you  like  about  it.  We  will  begin  with  the  wires.  Insert 
the  ends  one  after  the  other  in  a  row  in  one  of  the  pieces, 
laying  it  upon  the  bench,  or  fixing  it  on  its  edge  in  a  vice, 
but  taking  care  not  to  bend  them.  When  one  piece  is 
thus  stuck  full  of  wires,  lay  it  flat  on  its  side,  and  put  the 
other  piece  in  its  place,  and  one  by  one  insert  into  it  the 
other  ends  of  the  wires.  A  pair  of  pliers  will  help  you 
greatly  in  doing  this.  I  daresay  the  two  pieces  of  wood 
will  not  be  very  parallel,  but  will  be  closer  at  one  end  than 
at  the  other.  This  does  not  matter,  because  you  will  set 
it  right  in  nailing  on  the  upright  strips  or  corner  pillars. 
This,  therefore,  is  the  next  thing  you  must  do;  and  you 
must  have  two  brads  top  and  bottom,  each  an  inch  long, 
but  as  fine  as  you  can  get.  Nail  to  the  top  board  first, 
and  then  place  the  other  in  position  half  an  inch  from  the 
bottom  of  the  pillars.  If  you  have  no  carpenter's  vice, 


22 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


you  had  better  work  with  the  front  of  the  cage  laid  down 
flat  and  near  the  right  hand  edge  of  the  bench  or  table,  so 
that  the  pillar  almost  overlaps  it.  In  this  position,  you 
can  bore  the  two  holes  and  nail  it  together ;  but  be  guarded 
as  to  splitting  the  pillars. 

You  ought  now  to  have  the  front  well  and  firmly  put 
together  and  standing  square  and  true  as  in  the  sketch ; 
only  the  bottom  board,  of  which  you  see  the  front  edge,  10 
not  to  be  attended  to  at  present. 

There  is  another  way  of  going  to  work,  namely,  to  put 
the  whole  frame-work  of  the  cage  together  and  add  the 
wires  afterwards.  In  this  case  (the  holes  having  all  been 
made  beforehand  as  directed  here)  the  wires  are  in  turn 


Fig.  n. 

inserted  at  the  top,  and  then  being  slightly  bent  are  put 
in  place  in  the  bottom  piece — each  wire  being  completely 


TO  MAKE  A   CAGE. 


fixed  before  the  next  is  added.  Either  way  may  be  tried, 
but  in  that  given  above  the  wires  are  not  bent  at  all,  and 
therefore  have  not  to  be  straightened.  Adding  them,  how- 
ever, afterwards  is  the  common  practice  among  the  cage- 
makers.  Indeed,  it  generally  happens  in  large  establish- 
ments that  one  set  of  workmen  make  the  woodwork,  and 
another  set  add  the  wires — such  division  of  labour  proving 
more  advantageous. 

Attention  is  now  to  be  given  to  the  sides,  of  which  Fig. 
11  is  a  drawing.  Here  you  need  not  make  any  corner 
pillars.  You  have  only  to  cut  out  the  top  and  bottom 
strips — the  lower  one,  If  inch  wide,  to  match  that  in  front, : 


Fig.  12. 


the  top,  1  inch  wide,  to  match  the  straight  part  of  the 
ends  of  the  uppcj  front  piece  or  gable,  as  you  see  in  Fig.  12. 


«4  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

You  will  also  see  by  this  drawing  that  you  must  nail  the 
side  pieces  inside  the  corner  pillars,  and  not  upon  them,  so 
that  the  nails  go  in  from  the  front  of  the  cage  into  the  ends 
of  the  two  side  pieces  which  carry  the  wires.  I  have  shown 
by  dots  (Fig.  12)  where  the  nail  holes  are,  and  they  must 
be  carefully  made,  avoiding  the  places  where  the  other 
two  nails  come,  which  you  hammered  in  when  you  fitted 
together  the  front.  The  side  strips,  A  B  (Fig.  11),  may  bo 
8  inches  long.  Both  sides  of  the  cage  are  to  be  made 
exactly  alike.  I  have  told  you  to  make  the  lower  side-rails 
If  inch  wide,  because  they  must  come  to  the  bottom  of 
the  pillars,  for  no  half -inch  space  is  required  at  the  sides 
between  these  rails  and  the  bottom  of  the  cage.  It  is  so 
left  in  the  front,  because  a  tray,  or  cleaning-board,  has  to 
be  slid  in  there.  Tou  had  certainly  better  put  together 
the  side  pieces  by  means  of  the  wires,  as  in  Fig.  11,  before 
you  nail  them  in  their  places. 

You  now  require  a  piece  of  board  for  the  back,  and 
quarter-inch  stuff  will  do  very  well.  Bought  cages  are 
made  of  much  thinner  wood,  generally  mahogany,  but  at 
first  it  will  be  easier  for  you  to  use  thicker  boards.  If  you 
round  off  the  edges,  they  will  not  appear  so  thick.  Very 
thin  deal  will  warp  or  bend  after  it  is  made  up ;  and,  in- 
deed, it  is  quite  possible  the  back  of  this  cage  will  do  so. 
Get  the  wood,  however,  as  dry  as  you  can,  and  the  top 
boards,  when  nailed  on,  will  probably  prevent  it. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  CAGE.  25 

To  cut  out  this  back  board,  you  may  lay  down  upon  the 
piece  from  which  it  is  to  be  cut  the  whole  front  of  the  cage, 
and  draw  a  pencil  round  it,  only,  when  you  come  to  the 
bottom  of  the  side  pillars,  you  must  draw  a  line  straight 
across  from  one  to  the  other.  Then  cut  from  the  point  at 
the  top,  as  you  did  before.  Let  the  grain  of  the  wood  run 
up  and  down,  not  across,  the  back.  Nail  the  back  thus  cut 
to  the  side  strips,  as  you  nailed  on  the  front,  and  you  will 
then  only  have  the  roof  to  put  on,  and  the  bottom. 

This  roof  may  consist  simply  of  a  thin  board,  cut  square 
and  true,  nailed  on  to  the  two  gables,  and  it  will  look  much 
prettier  if  it  is  made  to  project  beyond  the  front.  If  you 
measure  down  the  slope  of  the  front  or  back  top-piece,  you 
will  find  it  6  inches  long,  and  a  little  more.  Your  board 
should  therefore  be  7  or  8  inches  wide,  because,  although 
the  roof  pieces  meet  at  the  top,  they  should  come  down  a 
little  beyond  the  sides  of  the  cage.  As  the  sides  are  fc 
inches  wide,  cut  the  top  11  inches  long,  which  will  allow  it 
lo  project  in  front  3  inches. 

If  you  look  at  the  cage  at  the  end  of  these  directions, 
you  will  understand  this.  You  must  slope,  or  devil  off,  the 
top  edges  of  these  roof  boards,  to  make  them  fit  neatly 
together  along  the  ridge  ;  and  as  you  will  paint  the  cage, 
you  can  glue  on  a  narrow  strip  of  paper,  to  make  it  quite 
water-tight.  The  door  of  these  cages  is  generally  in  the 
back.  You  merely  mark  and  cut  out  a  square  hole  about 


THE  YOUiVG  MECHANIC. 


3  inches  square.  You  then  fit  a  piece  in,  and  hinge  it 
either  with  wire,  or  (which  is  easier)  by  sticking  on  a  strip 
of  calico  down  the  edge  of  it,  and  fasten  with  a  wire  hook. 
As  the  back  is  but  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  you  will  be 
able  to  cut  out  the  hole  (before  nailing  on  the  back),  with 
a  sharp  pocket-knife ;  and  again  I  say,  don't  cut  out  the 
guide-lines — cut  inside  them,  and  then  neatly  pare  exactly 
up  to  them.  Make  the  bottom  13  inches  long,  and  10 
wide,  which  will  allow  it  to  project  in  front,  and  also  half 
an  inch  on  each  side. 

You  have  now  to  make  the  tray,  to  slide  into  the  space 
left  in  the  front  below  the  bottom  front  rail.  This  is  to 
hold  sifted  sand,  and  is  made  loose,  because  it  requires  to 
be  taken  out  and  cleaned  every  day  (Fig.  13).  It  is  merely 


Fig.  1&. 

a  flat  thin  board  (one-eighth  of  an  inch  will  be  quite  thick 
enough),  with  a  strip  nailed  on,  or  glued  on,  in  front,  to  fit 
the  space  left  for  it,  and  other  smaller  strips  glued  on  all 
round  it,  so  as  to  form  a  very  shallow  tray  or  drawer.  The 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  CAGE.  a? 

small  strips  cc  n  be  glued  on  flat  upon  tlie  top  of  the  board, 
but  to  fasten  on  the  front,  you  must  first  glue  on  a  similar 
strip  to  those  round  the  sides,  and  just  such  as  you  made 
the  pillars  of,  but  not  quite  so  thick,  and  then  glue,  or  nail 
on  with  very  small  brads,  the  front  piece,  nailing  or  glu- 
ing it  to  this  strip.  This  will  make  it  very  firm,  and  will 
do  well  enough  for  your  first  cage.  A,  Fig.  13,  shows  a 
part  of  the  drawer,  C  is  the  front,  and  D  the  strip  it  is 
glued  to.  The  handle  of  this  drawer  or  tray  is  to  be  made 
of  wire,  unless  you  can  find  some  little  knob  or  other  that 
will  do.  If  you  succeed  in  making  this  cage,  you  will  have 
learned  a  good  deal,  because,  although  not  really  difficult, 
it  requires  care  and  consideration ;  and  if  you  are  in  a 
hurry,  you  will  split  the  wood,  or  make  it  crooked,  or  cut  the 
pieces  too  short.  It  should  be  neatly  painted  in  oil-colour 
— green  is  a  favourite  colour — but  the  top  boards  may  be 
red,  and  the  wires  should  be  left  clean  and  bright,  because 
the  bird  often  pecks  at  them.  If  you  paint  the  inside  of 
the  woodwork,  it  should  be  white. 

I  have  not  here  put  any  feeding-boxes,  or  seed-drawers, 
becaase  glasses  are  the  best ;  but  you  will  see  two  holes  (Fig. 
11),  one  inch  across,  in  the  lower  side  pieces,  for  the  bird  to 
put  its  head  through  to  get  at  the  seed  and  water.  A  bit 
of  wire,  for»,iing  half  a  hoop,  supports  the  glasses  or  trays. 
These  ou'^ht  to  be  cut  with  a  centrebit — a  tool  you  hare 
not.  an-1  the  carpenter  had  better  do  it  for  you.  Here  is 


28 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


the  cage  complete  (Fig.  14).     You  can  do  without  making 
holes  in  the  sides,  if  you  put  two  wires  longer  than  the 


Dig  14. 


rest,  and  bend  them,  a«  you  see  at  B  in  Fig.  13,  before 
putting  them  in  place. 


CHAPTER  TIT. 


HE  previous  chapters  were  devoted  to  such  exceed- 
ingly simple  and  easy  specimens  of  carpentry 
as  can  be  made  by  any  boy  of  eleven  or  twelve 
years  of  age,  or  even  younger,  who  has  the 
necessary  perseverance,  and  will  take  sufficient  care  in 
measuring  and  fitting.  In  both  and  all  similar  cases,  it  is 
better  for  such  to  buy  pieces  of  board  already  planed,  and 
of  nearly  the  desired  size  ;  but  I  shall  no  longer  presuppose 
such  necessity,  but  advance  the  young  mechanic  to  the 
dignity  of  a  plane,  and  a  few  more  of  the  more  necessary 
and  useful  tools.  The  list  may  therefore  now  comprise — 

1  HAND  SAW,  16  inches  or  so  in  length,  a  full-sized  one  being  almost  beyond 

the  powers  of  a  boy. 

8  FIRMER  CHISELS,  quarter,  half,  and  one  inch  wide. 
1  MALLET.  — Chisel  handles  should  never  be  struck  with  a  hammer,  which 

splits  the  handles. 
1  HAMMER — This  should  be  light.     The  best  way  is  to  buy  a  hammer-head, 

and  make  the  handle.     A  heavy  one  can  be  added,  but  will  hardly 

be  required  at  first,  and  is  useless  for  light  work. 
1  JACK  PLANE,  1  SMOOTHING  Do. — The  jack  plane  is  not  usually  added  to 

a  boy's  tool-chest,  but  it  is  impossible  to  plane  up  a  long  straight 


30  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

edtre  without  it  ;  and  as  these  planes  can  be  had  from  12  inches  in 

length,  I  should  certainly  recommend  one,  say  12  to  15  inches, 
t  GIMLETS,  3  BRADAWLS.— One  of  each  of  these  should  be  as  small  as  can  be 

obtained.     Add  a  medium  and  a  larger  one. 
1  SCREWDRIVER,  1  PINCERS,  1  CUTTING  PLIERS. — Screwdriver  should  be  of  a 

medium  size  ;  the  pliers  such  as  are  used  by  bellhangers. 

1  COMPASSES. — These  should  be  light  carpenter's  compasses,  not  such  as  are 

made  of  brass  and  steel.     They  are  very  useful. 

2  GOUGES. — Carpenter's  gouges,  not  turner's.     They  will  answer  for  the  pre- 

sent, in  many  cases,  to  make  round  holes  in  boards.     The  centrebita 

and  braces  are  expensive. 
1  OIL-STONE. — There  is  a  cheap  and  quick-cutting  stone  called  Nova  Scotia 

which  will  answer  the  purpose  well. 

MORTICE- GAUGE. — The  use  of  this  will  be  shown  presently. 
1  SQUARE,  1  2  FOOT  RULE,  GLUE  POT,  and  BRUSH. — These  are,  as  before  stated, 

indispensable.     The  rule  need  not  have  a  brass  slide ;  the  square  may 

be  made  entirely  of  wood,  or  with  a  metal  blade  6  to  9  inches  in 

length. 

The  above,  with  the  addition  of  a  carpenter's  brace  and 
bit,  two  or  three  augers,  about  three  mortice  chisels,  and  a 
hatchet,  would  suffice  for  a  very  large  amount  of  good  work. 
Indeed,  it  represents  almost  a  complete  set  of  tools,  the 
only  additional  ones  that  are  at  all  likely  to  be  needed  being 
a  longer  (trying)  plane,  rebate  plane,  and  pair  of  match, 
or  tongue  and  groove  planes.  "Wkhout  any  of  the  latter, 
the  young  carpenter  will  find  it  easy  to  (^arry  out  a  good 
many  light  specimens  of  his  ingenuity. 

It  is  much  better,  in  general,  to  work  with  a  few  cools, 
and  contrive  to  make  them  answer  all  sorts  of  purposes, 
tiian  to  lay  in  a  larger  and  more  expensive  set  at  starting, 
for  the  latter  are  sure  to  be  abused  and  kept  in  bad  <  rder, 
because,  if  one  chisel  gets  blunt,  another  is  taken  up,  in- 


MORTICE  AND  TENON  JOINTING.  31 


gtead  of  sharpening  the  first ;  and  planes  and  other  tools 
are  treated  in  a  similar  manner,  and  a  carelessness  is  en 
gendered  fatal  to  success.  It  is  astonishing  how  much  may 
be  done  with  few  and  inefficient  tools,  but  then  the  utmost 
patience  and  industry  have  to  be  exercised,  much  as  we 
see  prevailing  among  the  native  workmen  of  India  and 
America,  who  execute  the  most  beautiful  and  delicate  work 
with  tools  which,  in  the  hands  of  a  European,  would  be 
generally  simply  useless. 

The  next  work  that  should  be  attempted  by  the  young 
mechanic  should  be  mortice  and  tenon  jointing,  as  used  in 
constructing  frames  of  various  kinds  for  doors,  window- 
sashes,  tables,  and  other  articles  of  everyday  use.  Perhaps 
one  of  the  simplest  and  easiest  examples  will  be  a  towel- 
horse,  which,  at  any  rate,  will  be  of  use  when  completed. 

Now,  it  may  be  at  once  stated,  that  for  work  of  this  kind 
especially,  but  generally  also  for  all  work,  it  is  essential  to 
be  able  to  square  up  truly  the  several  pieces  required.  This 
will  require  practice — long  and  careful  practice — and  the 
beginner  will  meet  here  with  his  first  and  chief  difficulty, 
but  he  must  not  despair. 

It  has  been  presupposed  that  a  strong  work -bench,  table- 
plank  mounted  upon  trestles,  or  some  sort  of  tolerably 
efficient  and  firm  bench  has  been  obtained,  or  is  accessible, 
and,  in  addition,  a  strong  stool  upon  which  to  saw,  cut  out 
mortices,  and  so  forth.  A  small  carpenter's  bench,  with  a 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC, 


wooden  vice,  is  most  handy  and  serviceable,  but  is  not 
absolutely  necessary.  It  will  be  easy  to  make  one  by  and 
by  ;  for  the  present,  any  available  substitute  must  be  used. 
The  height  of  the  proposed  towel-rail  may  equal  the  length. 
About  2  feet  6  inches  will  be  a  fair  size,  and  it  may  be  of  the 
simplest  possible  form,  such  as  is  here  delineated  (Fig.  15). 


Fig  15. 


The  upright  sides  may  be  made  of  strips  of  pine,  one  inch 
wide  and  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick— the  rails  1£  wide 
and  three  eighths  of  an  inch  thick.  The  feet  will  be  con 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A   TOWEL-RAIL.  33 

Bidered  presently.  If  careful  attention  is  given  to  the  fol- 
lowing directions,  not  only  will  the  result  be  certainly 
satisfactory,  but  the  way  will  be  paved  for  the  workmanlike 
construction  of  a  great  number  of  similarly  useful  articles 

The  size  of  the  ron^h.  material  must  always  be  greatei 
than  that  ultimately  needed,  to  allow  of  the  necessary  waste 
in  sawing  and  planing.  Pine  boards,  however,  are  usually 
cut  of  certain  general  widths  and  thicknesses ;  and  although 
we  have  here  set  down  stuff  of  one  inch  by  three-quarters, 
it  may  be  cut  from  inch  board,  because  very  little  will  be 
wasted  by  the  plane,  and  the  finished  work  will  be  suffi- 
ciently near  to  the  above  measure  for  the  intended  purpose, 
one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  or  so  being  of  no  practical  import- 
ance in  the  construction  of  such  an  article  as  a  towel-rail. 
Get,  therefore,  from  the  carpenter,  a  strip  of  pine  1  inch 
wide  and  6  feet  in  length,  cut  from  a  board  1  inch  thick, 
and  also  a  strip  for  the  rails  (of  which  there  will  be  three), 
4  inches  wide  and  2  feet  9  inches  long,  cut  from  a  half-inch 
board.  The .  rails  you  are  to  saw  yourself  from  the  latter 
strip,  which  will  give  you  practice  in  sawing  a  straight 
course,  and  the  work  is  easy  in  half-inch  stuff.  You  may 
therefore  begin  by  cutting  these,  for  which  purpose  you 
will  want  guide-lines  dividing  the  strip  into  three  of  equal 
width.  There  is  a  very  simple  way  of  marking  these  by 
means  of  a  chalk  line,  which  I  will  here  describe. 

The  width  of  the  board  I  set  down  at  4  inches,  because 

o 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


the  rails,  when  finished,  will  be  \\  inches  each,  or,  in  all, 
3f  inches.  As  each  contains  eight  eighths,  as  already 
explained,  4  inches  will  contain  thirty-two  eight!,  s.  Divid- 
ing by  3,  we  shall  have  ten  eighths  for  each  strip,  or  \\ 
inches,  and  two  eighths,  or  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  to  spare 
for  waste.  Take  the  compasses,  therefore,  and  open  them 
to  1^  and  a  little  over  (rather  less  than  to  the  next  division 
on  the  rule),  and  take  it  off  at  each  end  of  the  board 
(Fig  16,  A  B). 


rig.  16. 

Take  off,  again,  from  this  to  mark  the  width  of  the  next 
strip,  and  the  board  will  be  divided  with  sufficient  accuracy 
for  our  present  purpose.  Take  a  piece  of  twine,  long 
enough  to  stretch  from  end  to  end  of  the  plank,  and  some- 
thing over,  and  tie  a  knot  at  one  end.  Stick  a  bradawl 
through  the  string,  close  to  this  knot  and  into  the  board, 
as  seen  at  C  of  the  same  figure.  Take  a  lump  of  chalk, 
and  chalk  the  line  from  end  to  end.  Then  strain  it  down 
the  board,  holding  it  by  the  left  hand,  so  that  it  is  stretched 


PLANING.  35 


from  one  mark  to  the  other,  where  the  saw-cut  is  to  be 
made.  With  the  finger  and  thumb  of  the  other  hand,  raise 
it  a  little  in  the  middle,  and  let  it  suddenly  go,  when  it 
will  make  a  perfectly  clear  and  straight  line  upon  the 
board.  Make  a  similar  and  parallel  line  for  the  next  saw- 
eut.  In  the  present  case,  you  need  not  mind  cutting  this 
chalk  mark  out.  Try  and  saw  right  down,  so  as  to  split  it. 
You  now  have  your  strips  cut  out,  but  they  require  to  be 
planed.  You  might,  indeed,  with  advantage,  have  planed 
the  whole  strip  on  both  sides  before  marking  and  cutting 
it,  but  it  is  equally  easy  to  do  it  afterwards.  The  jack 
plane  is  the  one  to  be  used  for  this  purpose.  I  must  sup- 


Fig.  17. 

pose  it  to  be  sharp  and  in  good  order ;  if  not,  ask  some 
carpenter  to  set  it  for  you  for  the  present,  but  I  will  soon 
tell  you  how  to  io  it  for  yourself.  Indeed,  you  will  have 


36  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

to  learn  how  to  sharpen  all  your  tools  before  yon  can  be 
called  a  good  workman.  If  the  plane  is  properly  set,  the 
cutting  edge  will  project  very  slightly  only  from  the 
bottom;  so  that  when  held  as  in  Fig.  17,  and  the  eye 
directed  along  the  sole,  only  a  narrow  shining  slip  of 
metal  will  appear.  If  too  far  out,  it  will  hitch  and  make 
bad  work ;  if  not  far  enough,  it  will  not  cut  at  all ;  but 
the  common  fault  of  beginners  is  to  have  it  too  far  out, 
because  from  their  imperfect  handling  of  this  tool  they 
often  fail  to  make  it  cut,  when  in  the  hands  of  a  carpenter 
it  would  work  well.  Now,  if  the  iron  projects  too  far,  hold 
it  as  shown,  so  that  you  look  along  the  sole,  and  give  it  a 
tap  with  your  wooden  mallet  on  the  upper  face  at  A,  and 
this  is  also  the  way  to  loosen  the  wedge  and  irons  for 
removal.  By  a  blow  at  B,  you  can  send  the  cutting  edge 
forward  to  cut  more  deeply,  or  in  this  case  you  may  tap 
the  iron  itself  with  a  metal  hammer,  but  tapping  the  end 
of  the  wood  is  better. 

To  plane  the  edges  of  these  strips,  you  ought  to  have  a 
bench  with  a  vice,  but  there  are  ways  and  means  to  do 
without  it,  and  one  is  so  good  that  I  shall  speak  of  it  here, 
although  it  necessitates  a  somewhat  abrupt  break-off  in  my 
description  of  the  towel-rail.  It  is  a  kind  of  vice  that  is 
fixed  to  a  board  which  is  laid  upon  the  work-bench  when 
required. 

In  Fig.  18  is  a  drawing  of  one  of  two  kinds  of  such  vices 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  VICE. 


37 


which  I  will  explain.     This  first  consists  of  two  pieces  of 
wood  (ash  will  be  better  than  pine)  about  9  inches  long 


Fig.  18. 

and  2  inches  thick.  They  are  cut  in  the  shape  given  in 
the  drawing,  and  screwed  to  the  board,  not  tightly,  but  so 
as  to  move  freely  upon  the  screws.  The  board  should  be 
an  inch  thick  to  give  the  screws  a  firm  hold.  You  can  see 
by  the  figure  that  the  tails'  of  the  pieces  cross  each  other 
sometimes  when  in  use.  To  allow  of  this,  they  are  cut  like 
B  and  C,  so  that  one  can  go  inside  the  other.  Now,  if  you 
consider  a  little,  you  will  understand  that  if  we  stand  a 
strip  of  board  between  the  two,  and  push  it  forward  against 
the  insides  of  the  tails  of  these  curiously-shaped  blocks,  it 
will  make  the  opposite  knobbed  ends  close  nearer  together, 
and  these  will  grip  the  piece  of  wood,  and  the  harder  we 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


push  it  forward,  the  more  closely  it  will  be  gripped  and 
held ;  but  the  moment  we  draw  back  the  piece,  the  two 
jaws  will  open  to  let  it  go  free.  You  can  try  first  of  all 
upon  a  thin  piece,  which  can  be  shaped  by  your  knife,  and 
make  a  model  of  this  vice,  and  then  if  you  can't  manage  tc 
cut  out  such  a  one  of  thick  wood,  the  carpenter  would  do  it 
for  you,  and  it  will  be  handy  for  many  purposes.  If  you 
have  nothing  of  this  kind,  nor  a  vice  to  your  bench,  drive 
in  two  pins  or  pegs  of  wood,  or  two  nails,  a  little  way  apart, 
so  as  to  allow  your  strip  of  wood  to  stand  upon  edge  be- 
tween them,  and  drive  two  more  a  little  way  from  these ; 
then  one  at  the  end  to  form  a  planing  stop.  A  tap  at  the 


Fig.  19. 


•ides  of  these  nails  will  cause  them  to  hold  the  strip  edge- 
wise,  quite  well  enough  to  allow  you  to  plane  it.     There 


PLANING.  39 


are  other  ways,  and  I  shall  describe  them  by  and  by.  In 
the  meantime  use  nails,  or  any  other  plan  that  will  answer. 
I  shall  suppose,  therefore,  that  one  of  the  narrow  strips 
is  thus  set  on  edge  upon  your  bench  ready  to  be  planed. 
Grasp  the  handle  of  your  plane  firmly  with  the  right  hand, 
and  lay  hold  of  it  in  front  of  the  iron  with  the  left.  Draw 
it  back,  and  then  send  it  steadily  forward,  pressing  it 
downwards  at  the  same  time.  Now  the  advantage  of  a 
long  plane  is,  that  it  does  not  descend  into  the  hollows  of 
the  work,  but  rests  upon  the  projections,  as  in  Fig.  19,  A. 
A  short  plane  would  do  as  seen  at  B,  and  therefore  would 
never  make  a  long  straight  edge.  You  have  two  special 
points  here  to  attend  to.  You  have  to  plane  a  level  line 
from  end  to  end,  and  also  keep  the  edges  square  to  the 
sides,  which  is  by  no  means  easy  at  first.  You  must  keep 
trying  it  with  your  square,  as  I  have  shown  you  in  Fig.  20, 


Fig.  20. 

and  not  rest  satisfied  until  the  handle  fits  close  to  the  side 
of  the  strip,  and  the  edge  lies  also  close  upon  that  of  the 
strip  anywhere  along  its  length.  I  daresay  you  will  think 
this  of  no  importance  in  such  a  common  thing  as  a  pine 


40  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


towel-horse ;  but  I  may  tell  you  this  is  the  very  secret  of 
carpenter's  work,  and  when  you  can  saw  and  plane  truly, 
and  work  "  to  square,"  you  can  make  almost  anything.  It 
is  true  that  the  strips  for  the  rails  are  not  of  great  import- 
ance in  this  case,  but  the  upright  side  pieces  are,  and  if 
these  are  out  of  truth,  the  holes  cut  through  them  for  the 
rails,  which  are  called  mortices,  will  be  out  of  truth  also, 
and  you  will  see  the  towel-horse,  when  it  is  made,  all 
twisted  and  awry,  and  nothing  you  can  do  will  make  it 
stand  firm  or  look  well.  It  is,  in  short,  no  use  to  pretend 
to  learn  carpentry  unless  you  at  once  make  up  your  mind 
to  succeed,  and  therefore  you  must  always  use  the  square 
and  try  your  work  as  you  go  on.  All  the  difference  between 
the  usual  work  of  carpenters,  and  that  of  boys  or  men  who 
do  not  know  how  to  work,  consists  of  the  squareness  and 
good  fit  of  what  the  former  make.  Boys  never  seem  to 
trouble  themselves  about  such  things,  and  so  you  see  their 
boxes  and  rabbit-hutches  look  twisted,  and  being  badly 
fitted,  they  soon  go  to  pieces. 

Having  planed  up  the  sides  and  edges  of  the  rails  as- 
square  and  true  as  you  can,  cut  the  other  long  strip  in  half, 
and  square  up  this  also,  taking  care  that  both  pieces  are 
alike  and  both  truly  worked.  If  your  bench  is  sufficiently 
long  to  take  the  whole  strip,  plane  it  up  before  you  cut  it 
across,  and  you  will  be  sure  to  have  the  sides  of  your  towel- 
rail  equal  in  size.  You  have  now  to  make  your  first  essay 


MORTICING. 


in  cutting  mortices.     Follow  these  directions,  and  you  will 
not  fail.     I  shall  not  limit  the  description  to  these  special 
mortices,  but  give  you  general  directions. 
Fig.  21  represents  a  bar  of  wood — the  side  of  the  towel- 


horse,  for  instance — with  a  mortice  cut  through  it  at  A, 
and  others  marked  out  at  a  b,  c  d.  Below,  at  B,  is  a  gauge, 
of  which  the  construction  and  use  will  be  explained  pre- 
sently. F  shows  how  the  feet  are  to  be  attached  and  cut. 
They  are  morticed  while  in  a  "  squared-up  "  condition,  and 
shaped  afterwards  according  to  fancy ;  sometimes  they  are 
left  square,  and  knobs  screwed  below  to  make  two  feet. 

These  mortices  may,  of  course,  be  of  any  desired  length 
or  width.  Those  required  for  the  towel-rail  sides  will  be 
1£  inch  long  by  half  an  inch  wide  nearly.  The  planing  of 
the  strips  may  have  reduced  them  more  or  less  below  the 
exact  size  specified,  try  therefore  with  the  compasses  what 
the  precise  thickness  is  of  the  ends,  and  measure  that 


42  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


thickness  on  your  two-foot  rule.  You  now  want  to 
the  lines  a  t,  which  I  have  represented  as  extending  the 
whole  length  of  the  strip,  and  as  all  the  mortices  are  to  be 
alike,  you  may  so  mark  them.  The  gauge  B  is  of  two 
parts,  a  sliding  piece,  C,  and  a  rectangular  bar  of  wood 
about  9  inches  long  and  half  an  inch  square.  This  slides 
stiffly  through  the  mortice  in  C,  and  is  fixed  at  any  part 
by  the  small  wedge  D.  This  gauge  you  can  easily  make. 
It  is  not  a  mortice  gauge  properly  so  called,  because  the 
latter  has  two  marking  points  instead  of  the  one  seen  at  h, 
and  which  may  be  the  point  of  a  brad  driven  in  and  filed 
up  to  an  edge.  Loosen  the  wedge  slightly,  and  draw  back 
the  rectangular  bar,  or  push  it  forward,  until  you  think  that 
the  space  between  the  sliding  piece  and  the  point  is  about 
that  which  is  required  on  each  side  of  the  mortices,  so  that 
if  you  set  the  wedge  firm,  and  resting  the  sliding  piece 
against  the  edge  of  the  board,  cause  the  point  to  make  a 
mark,  and  repeat  this  on  the  other  side  of  the  same  face  of 
the  wood,  there  will  be  left  between  the  marks  thus  made 
the  exact  width  of  the  required  mortice.  Try  it,  and  if  not, 
give  a  tap  to  the  instrument,  and  adjust  it  until  the  space 
is  exactly  correct.  Then  fix  all  firm,  and  holding  it  so  that 
the  little  point  will  mark  the  wood,  while  the  head  or  slid- 
ing piece  is  against  the  side  of  the  board,  run  the  tool  from 
end  to  end,  or  run  it  along  just  where  the  mortices  are 
required,  using  both  hands.  You  will  thus  make  the  two 


MORTICING.  43 


long  lines  between  which  the  mortices  have  to  be  cut.  Now 
turn  the  wood  over,  and  do  the  same  on  the  other  side. 
You  are  now  quite  sure  that  these  lines,  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  piece,  agree  exactly  in  position,  which  is  the  object 
of  using  a  gauge ;  and  as  you  have  planed  up  a  second  strip 
to  exactly  the  size  of  this  first,  you  have  but  to  repeat  the 
process  (no  measuring  being  necessary)  upon  that;  and 
you  may  be  satisfied  that  thus  far  the  two  sides  of  the 
towel-rail  will  tally.  You  now  set  off  with  the  compasses 
upon  one  of  these  lines  the  lengths  of  the  mortices  in  their 
proper  places,  and  at  the  points  thus  marked,  using  your 
square  for  the  purpose,  mark  the  end  lines  of  these  mor- 
tices ;  but  when  so  doing,  carry  the  lines  across,  as  a  6,  c  </, 
and  down  the  sides  and  across  the  opposite  side.  With  the 
square  this  will  be  easily  done,  the  blade  of  it  being  laid 
flat,  so  that  its  edge  becomes  the  ruler,  while  the  handle 
becomes  the  guide  or  gauge  resting  against  the  side  oi 
the  wood.  At  E,  Fig.  21,  this  position  of  the  square  is 
shown. 

By  thus  carrying  round  all  the  lines,  you  will  have  the 
mortices  marked  on  both  sides  in  exactly  the  same  relative 
position,  so  that  you  can  (and  must)  cut  them  half  from 
one  side  and  half  from  the  other,  using  the  chisel  nearest 
to  the  size  required,  but  alrcays  of  less  width  (or  length) 
than  the  mortice,  because  you  must  never  cut  out  the  guide 
lines,  but  must  keep  within  them,  only  carefully  paring 


44  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


the  \vood  at  last  close  to  them.  You  will  never  cut  mor- 
tices correctly,  unless  you  thus  mark  the  positioi.  on  both 
eides,  and  work  as  directed. 

The  ends  of  the  cross  rails  will  not  have  to  be  cut  into 
tenons,  as  they  will  fit  as  they  are,  only  requiring  to  be 
glued  into  their  places,  when,  if  you  have  worked  carefully, 
the  whole  will  look  well,  and  will  be  square  and  true, 
without  twist ;  but  if  you  did  not  plane  up  the  sides  square, 
you  will  find  the  towel-rail  awry  and  unworkmanlike. 
Although,  however,  there  is  no  necessity  to  make  regular 
tenons  in  the  present  case,  the  usual  way  is  to  do  so,  and 
to  fix  with  wedges,  as  in  Fig.  15.  After  a  mortice  has 
been  cut  straight  through  a  piece  as  directed,  this  mortice 
is  slightly  eased,  or  sloped  off,  as  seen  at  a  b,  which  is  a 
section  of  one.  The  rail  or  tenon  c  is  put  through  after 
being  brushed  with  glue ;  and  when  in  exact  position,  two 
wedges  are  glued  and  driven  in  at  each  end,  as  seen  in 
the  drawing.  After  all  is  dry,  these  wedges  being  firmly 
united  to  the  rail,  as  seen  at  k,  prevent  it  from  being 
drawn  back  or  moved.  Nearly  all  mortice  and  tenon  joints 
are  fixed  in  this  way. 

As  I  am  describing  this  kind  of  work,  I  may  as  well 
explain  the  method  of  marking  and  cutting  tenons,  as  it 
will  answer  not  only  for  affixing  the  feet,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
21,  but  for  all  similar  work. 

In  Fig.  22,  I  have  illustrated  the  mode  of  marking  out 


TENONING. 


tenons,  and  at  D  is  a  double  tenon,  which  is  in  wide  pieces 
often  substituted  for  the  single,  and  makes  an  excellent 


Fig.  22. 

joint.  The  longitudinal  lines  £,  y,  y,  ^,  are  marked  as 
before  with  the  gauge,  whether  for  single  or  double  tenons ; 
the  line  a  b,  with  the  assistance  of  the  square ;  the  cheeks, 
c  and  d,  are  then  cut  off  entirely  with  a  fine  saw,  called  on 
this  account  a  tenon-saw, — and  care  must  be  taken  as  before 
not  to  cut  out  the  guide  lines.  If,  instead  of  the  outer 
cheeks,  the  piece  between  them  is  to  be  removed  to  make  a 
double  tenon,  this  must  be  done  with  mallet  and  chisel, 
after  carefully  sawing  down  the  lines  x  y  ;  and  the  chisel  is 
to  be  used  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other,  by  which 
means  the  shoulder  will  be  cut  true  to  the  guide  lines.  If, 
however,  the  cut  across  should  curve  a  little  downwards 
like  n,  it  will  not  much  matter,  so  long  as  the  edges  fit 
closely.  It  is  nevertheless  better  to  cut  straight  across. 


46  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

The  outer  cheeks  of  this  will  be  marked  and  cut  as  in  the 
single  mortice  (Fig.  22). 

If  a  workman  has  to  cut  many  mortices  on  pieces  of  tho 
same  size,  he  frequently  constructs  a  rough  mortice  gauge 
with  double  points,  which  marks  both  sides  of  the  mortice 
at  once,  like  K.  A  fixed  block  at  K,  the  right  distance 
from  the  points,  /  m,  of  two  nails,  is  sufficient  when  all  the 
mortices  are  to  be  alike.  There  is,  however,  a  regular 
double-pointed  gauge,  made  generally  of  ebony,  plated 
with  brass,  and  a  brass  rule  to  which  one  of  the  points  is 
fixed,  and  which  is  acted  on  by  a  screw  at  the  end,  which 
can  be  turned  by  the  thumb  and  finger.  This  has  the  effect 
of  separating  or  closing  the  two  points  according  to  the 
desired  width  of  the  mortice,  its  distance  from  the  side  of 
the  piece  being  regulated  as  before  by  the  sliding  head  fixed 
by  a  wedge.  This  is  an  expensive  tool,  and  need  not  be 
purchased.  There  are  also,  let  me  add,  many  costly  tools 
of  various  forms  and  uses ;  but  let  the  boy's  motto  (and 
man's,  too,  for  all  that)  be,  "  Do  as  well  as  you  can  with- 
out." You  have  no  idea  how  a  little  ingenuity  and  con- 
trivance will  save  your  pockets,  and  that,  too,  without  in 
the  least  tending  to  spoil  your  work.  All  you  require  are 
a  few  of  the  most  generally  useful  tools  in  first-rate  condi- 
tion— chisels,  saws,  and  planes,  sharp  and  well  set,  and  fit 
for  work  at  any  moment. 

With  regard  to  uniting  two  pieces  of  wood  or  other 


GLUE.  47 


material  with  glue,  it  mast  be  remembered  that  if  you  use 
this  substance  in  a  thick  semifluid  state,  and  in  quantity, 
its  effect  will  be  lost.  Make  it  a  rule  to  put  on  as  thin  a 
coat  as  possible,  and  let  it  be  not  thicker  than  cream,  so 
that  it  will  freely  flow  into  corners,  and  spread  evenly  over 
the  surfaces  to  be  united.  Make  the  wood  also  quite  warm, 
so  that  the  glue  shall  not  be  suddenly  chilled,  and  let  it  be 
used  boiling.  Always  heat  it  either  in  a  proper  glue-pot, 
or  at  any  rate,  place  the  vessel  which  contains  it  (a  small 
gallipot,  for  instance)  inside  another  vessel  in  which  water 
can  be  kept  boiling. 

The  glue,  which  should  be  thin  and  transparent,  being 
broken  into  small  pieces,  should  be  put  into  such  a  vessel 
as  suggested,  and  covered  with  cold  water,  and  it  should 
be  allowed  to  remain  thus  until  swollen  and  softened. 
Then  bring  the  water  in  the  outer  vessel  to  the  boiling 
point,  and  do  not  use  the  glue  until  it  is  entirely  dissolved 
and  of  one  uniform  consistence.  It  should  be  stirred  while 
boiling  with  a  piece  of  stick,  and  a  brush  used  to  lay  it 
upon  the  pieces  to  be  joined.  It  very  generally  happens 
that  pieces  glued  by  boys  fall  apart  almost  directly.  This 
is  almost  entirely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  glue  is  used  thick 
and  clotty,  and  in  too  great  quantity,  while  the  wood  w 
never  made  warm  as  it  should  be.  If  two  pieces  are  pro- 
perly joined  in  this  way,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  separate 
them  at  the  joint — the  wood  itself  will  give  way  and  split 


d*  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


before  the  glue  will  yield  to  the  strain.  Carpenters  use 
various  forms  of  clamps  or  vices  to  hold  work  together 
until  the  glue  shall  be  dry ;  but  for  boys  by  far  the  best 
plan,  where  any  such  holdfast  is  needed,  is  to  bind  the 
parts  together  with  twine,  and  then  to  set  them  aside  for 
twelve  hours  at  least.  It  is  seldom  that  articles  once 
united  by  glue  and  separated  will  unite  firmly  a  second 


CHAPTER   IV. 


HE  exercise  of  a  boy's  mechanical  tastes  npon 
works  of  practical  utility  is,  of  course,  far  pre- 
ferable to  its  expenditure  upon  mere  trifles,  made 
one  day  to  be  cast  aside  and  destroyed  the  next ; 
and  as  there  is  scarcely  any  household  that  does  not  need 
its  furniture  repaired  or  added  to  from  time  to  time,  I  shall 
now  give  directions  for  the  construction  of  one  or  two 
articles  that  seem  to  be  within  fair  scope  of  a  young 
mechanic's  abilities.  The  first  is  a  plain,  useful  table,  with- 
out a  drawer,  and  with  square  legs,  because  without  a  lathe 
the  latter  cannot  be  made  ornamental ;  and  lathe  work 
will  occupy  some  future  pages,  since  it  is  necessary  first  to 
give  the  young  mechanic  a  fair  insight  into  the  principles 
and  practice  of  plain  carpentry  and  joinery. 

The  very  young  mechanic,  so  far  as  my  experience  of 
him  goes  (and  it  is  rather  extensive),  makes  his  early 
attempt  by  sticking  the  points  of  four  nails  into  the  cor- 
ners of  any  tolerably  square  piece  of  board  he  can  lay  hands 


50  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

on.  His  next  attempt,  when  he  has  risen  to  the  dignity 
of  a  knife  and  gimlet,  is  to  place  four  wooden  legs  at  the 
corners  of  a  similar  board,  which,  if  the  said  legs  are  glued 
in  (by  which  a  wonderful  mess  is  always  made  of  the 
structure),  is  considered  a  great  feat,  and  worthy  of  the 
admiring  patronage  of  fond  parents  and  playmates.  Now, 
a  table  does  not  consist  of  any  such  arrangement  of  pieces, 
although  I  certainly  have  seen  sometimes,  in  the  cottages 
of  the  poor,  a  three-legged  affair  of  this  nature,  which  is 
just  nothing  more  than  a  magnified  milking-stool.  We 
cannot  content  ourselves  now  with  anything  of  the  kind. 
We  shall  have  to  work  away  with  plane  and  chisel  and 
square,  and  with  neat  tenon  and  mortice  joints  first  con- 
struct the  frame  upon  which  the  top  will  be  placed,  and 
then  finish  it  secundum  artem,  the  English  of  which,  as  I 
am  writing  to  boys,  I  shall  not  reveal. 

The  table  shall  be  3  feet  long,  1  foot  8  inches  wide,  2 
feet  4  inches  high  ;  the  top  board  being  half  an  inch  thick 
when  planed  and  fitted,  for  which  it  will  therefore  be  re- 
quired to  be  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  the  rough.  The 
legs  demand  attention  first.  Plane  up  strips  cut  from  a 
2-inch  board,  and  let  them  be  exactly  2  inches  wide.  These 
must  be  worked  up  with  the  greatest  possible  accuracy,  or 
it  will  be  impossible  to  fit  the  framework  so  as  to  make  the 
table  stand  truly  or  bear  inspection.  After  four  such  strips 
have  been  planed  up,  cut  a  piece  from  a  half-inch  board,  or 


HO  W  TO  MAKE  A  TABLE. 


5' 


from  a  board  that  will  plane  to  half  an  inch.  Let  this  be 
4  inches  wide  and  9  feet  long,  and  be  sure  to  plane  this 
also  truly,  and  to  make  the  edges  square  to  the  sides. 

If  you  have  no  strip  that  will  answer  of  9  feet  long,  you 
can  cut  two  or  more  instead,  remembering  that  you  will 
require  two  pieces  each  18  inches  long  and  two  of  2  feet  9 
at  the  least,  all  as  nearly  alike  in  width  as  possible.  You 
have  now  all  that  you  will  need  for  the  framework  of  your 
table — the  top  may  be  left  till  the  rest  is  fitted.  Now  you 


Fig.  23. 

may  proceed  to  cut  the  requisite  mortices  in  the  legs,  which 

you  will  understand  by  sketch  Fig.  23,  which  represents 
one  corner  of  the  table  before  the  top  is  added.      There  is 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


no  more  difficulty  in  this  than  in  the  previous  work,  except 
perhaps  that  somewhat  more  care  is  requisite  in  squaring 
up  the  several  pieces  and  cutting  the  mortices  with  accuracy. 
Use  the  gauge  as  before  in  marking  the  mortices,  trying  it 
until  it  is  so  fixed  that  it  will  leave  the  proper  width  of  the 
holes,  namely,  half  an  inch  (which  is  the  thickness  of  the 
strips  which  are  to  form  the  framework).  This  is  upon 
the  supposition  that  your  gauge  has  but  one  marking 
point :  but  to  explain  its  use. 

I  shall  now  introduce  to  your  notice  a  regular  mortice- 
gauge  of  two  points,  which  is  vastly  more  convenient. 
This  is  represented  in  Fig.  24.  The  main  stem  is  grooved 


Fig.  34. 

along  its  length  on  one  side  with  a  dovetailed  slit,  that  is,  a 
groove  which  is  wider  below  than  above.  This  is  generally 
made  in  a  brass  plate  attached  to  the  stem  of  the  gauge, 
but  sometimes  in  the  wood  itself.  In  this  slides  a  slip  of 
brass  which  can  be  drawn  back  by  pulling  the  knob  A,  or 
by  iirning  a  thumbscrew  at  one  end,  as  in  the  more  expen- 
sive gauges.  One  of  the  marking  points  is  fixed  in  the  end 
of  this  slide,  the  other  in  the  wood  (or  metal)  beyond  it,  at 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  TABLE.  53 

B,  and  when  these  are  allowed  to  be  together  they  form 
but  one  point,  being  flattened  on  one  side,  so  that  they  will 
fit  accurately  against  each  other.  Thus  it  is  easy  to  separate 
the  two  points  at  pleasure  to  the  exact  width  of  the  required 
mortice.  By  means  of  the  wedged  sliding  piece  C,  we  no\v 
have  merely  to  determine  how  far  the  edge  of  the  mortice 
is  to  be  from  one  side  of  the  piece.  Thus,  suppose  that  in 
the  present  case  we  should  prefer  to  have  the  side  of  the 
frame  nearer  to  the  outside  edge  of  the  legs  than  to  the 
inside,  we  can  so  arrange  it  easily ;  but  we  must  then  take 
care  to  gauge  all  alike,  either  from  the  inside  edge  or  the 
outside.  We  do  not,  therefore,  with  this  kind  of  gauge 
work  from  both  edges,  and  leave  the  space  between  the  lines 
for  the  width  of  the  mortice,  but  we  work  from  one  edge 
$nly  of  the  piece  of  wood,  and  mark  the  mortice  at  once  in 
any  desired  position.  I  need  hardly  repeat,  that  for  any 
particular  job,  a  very  good  substitute  for  such  gauge  can 
be  made  by  driving  two  small  nails  into  a  strip  of  wood  cut 
with  a  projecting  piece  to  serve  instead  of  the  movable 
head. 

Let  us  now  proceed  with  the  work  in  hand.  One  of  the 
legs  of  the  table,  before  bei'\g  worked  into  shape,  is  shown 
in  Fig.  25 ;  the  dotted  lines  show  how  it  will  be  eventually 
sloped  off  below  the  mortices  which  carry  the  top  frame. 
These  mortices  must  not  now  go  through  the  legs,  and 
therefore  you  will  have  to  be  very  careful  to  hold  the  chisel 


54 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


upright,  so  as  to  insure  the  squareness  of  the  frame  when 
put  together.     The  mortices  being  in  adjacent  sides,  will  of 


Fig.  26. 

course  meet,  but  it  will  be  advantageous  to  cut  those  which 
are  intended  to  receive  the  two  longest  strips,  viz.,  the 
front  and  back,  rather  deeper  than  the  other  two.  First 
set  off  an  inch  from  the  top  of'  the  leg  at  the  line  A  B.  If 
less  than  this  intervenes  between  the  top  of  the  mortice 
and  the  end  of  the  leg,  you  will  probably  break  the  piece 
out  and  spoil  your  work.  As  the  side  boards  are  4  inches 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  TABLE.  55 

wide,  and  must  come  flush  with  the  top  of  the  legs,  you 
will  have  to  cut  them  like  C,  and  there  will  be  3  inches  left 
for  the  tenon,  all  of  which  may  be  left,  as  the  wider  this  is 
the  more  hold  it  will  have  on  the  legs  into  which  it  is  to  be 
glued.  It  is  plain,  therefore,  that  the  mortice  will  be  3 
inches  long  and  half  an  inch  wide;  and  when  you  have 
marked  it  to  this  size,  take  care  to  cut  it  accurately,  be- 
cause if  it  is  too  small,  you  will  break  out  the  piece  between 
the  mortices  when  you  try  to  force  in  the  frame  pieces,  and 
if  too  large,  you  will  scarcely  get  the  whole  to  remain  secure. 
Work  therefore  exactly  to  gauge.  It  is  usual  to  keep  these 
side  and  end  pieces  more  to  the  outside  of  the  legs  than  the 
inside,  as  F,  where  you  are  supposed  to  be  looking  at  the 
inside  corner;  and  if  you  look  at  D  (which  shows  the  top  or 
cross  section  of  a  leg,  as  if  after  the  pieces  were  fitted  you 
had  sawn  off  the  leg  close  down  to  the  mortices,  exposing 
them  to  view),  you  will  see  that  by  thus  keeping  near  the 
outside  edges  you  get  both  mortices  deeper  than  if  you  cut 
them,  like  E,  in  the  middle  of  the  sides  of  the  leg.  Of 
course,  the  deeper  these  tenons  are  let  into  the  legs,  the 
stronger  their  hold  will  be.  There  will  now  only  remain  to 
warm  all  the  pieces  and  glue  them  into  their  respective 
places,  with  the  precautions  before  stated  as  to  the  thin- 
ness of  the  glue  and  speed  of  the  operation.  See  that  all 
stands  square  and  true;  if  not,  a  tap  here  and  there  as 
required  will  set  it  straight,  and  then  let  all  stand  till  dry. 


56  TH±L  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


I  have  told  you  to  cut  the  side  and  end  pieces  18  inches 
and  2  feet  9  respectively,  so  that  if  the  mortices  are  \\ 
inches  or  so  deep,  your  frame  will  be  about  1  foot  6  inches 
wide,  and  2  feet  6  inches  long.  The  top,  which  is  to  over- 
lap as  usual,  will  be  now  prepared  as  follows.  It  will  not 
be  possible  to  make  this  of  a  single  width  of  board ;  and 
nothing  will  more  fully  test  the  ying  workman's  skill, 
than  planing  the  edges  of  two  pieces  so  that  they  shall  fit 
accurately  together.  It  must,  nevertheless,  be  attempted. 

Cut  two  pieces  of  three-quarter-inch  board,  and  plane 
the  sides  as  accurately  as  possible.  Then  set  them  up 
edgewise,  either  singly  or  together,  and  plane  the  edges 
with  steady,  long  strokes  of  the  longest  plane  you  have, 
set  fine — that  is,  with  the  cutting  edge  projecting  but 
slightly.  Try  each  singly  with  the  square  from  end  tc 
end,  and  then  lay  them  on  any  perfectly  flat  surface,  as  on 
your  bench,  or  on  a  table,  and  see  whether  the  edges  lie 
close  all  along.  Remember,  too,  that  they  may  do  so 
when  one  surface  is  upwards,  and  not  when  turned  over,  as 
will  occur  when  the  edges  are  not  square  to  the  sides.  In 
cutting  out  the  pieces,  therefore, — which,  when  finished, 
are  to  be  together  1  foot  8  inches, — you  should  make  them 
1  foot  9,  so  as  to  allow  you  a  whole  inch  to  waste  in  plan- 
ing and  fitting.  When  both  are  as  true  as  you  can  get 
them,  lay  them  down  near  together,  and  brush  the  edges 
with  boiling  hot  glue.  Then  immediately  put  them  to- 


HO  W  TO  MAKE  A  TABLE.  57 

gether,  and  rub  them  a  few  seconds  one  against  the  other, 
till  they  seem  to  stick  slightly.  Then  leave  them  in  their 
exact  position,  and  drive  a  couple  of  nails  into  the  bench 
against  the  outside  edges,  so  as  to  keep  them  together,  or 
in  any  other  way  wedge  them  tightly  in  position  until  they 
are  quite  dry.  When  the  glue  is  hard  which  has  been 
squeezed  out  along  the  joint,  you  may  run  a  plane  all  over 
the  united  boards,  and  you  ought  hardly  to  see  the  joint, 
which  will  be  nearly  as  strong  as  any  other  part. 

This  top  has  now  to  be  attached  to  the  frame,  as  follows. 
Cut  some  pieces  like  K  in  Fig.  25,  and  glue  them  here  and 
there  along  the  inside  edges  of  the  frame,  so  that  one  side 
of  them  shall  come  quite  flush  with  the  upper  edge.  To 
these  the  top  has  to  be  glued.  Lay  it,  therefore,  with  its 
under  side  upwards,  upon  the  floor  (I  suppose  the  short 
pieces  glued  and  dry  on  the  frame),  and  having  also  glued 
the  sides  of  the  short  pieces  which  will  touch  the  under 
side  of  the  table  top,  turn  the  whole  upside  down,  with  its 
legs  in  the  air,  adjusting  it  quickly.  Its  own  weight  will 
keep  it  in  position  until  dry ;  or,  if  not,  it  is  easy  to  lay  an 
odd  board  or  two  across,  and  put  some  weights  upon  them. 
When  dry,  turn  over  your  table,  and  plane  round  the  edges 
where  necessary ;  and,  if  it  does  not  stand  very  well,  trim 
the  bottoms  of  the  legs.  Clean  off  glue,  and  rub  any  rough 
places  with  sandpaper  or  glasscloth,  filling  up  any  acci- 
dental holes  with  putty,  after  which  it  will  be  fit  for  receiv- 


S8  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

ing  paint  or  stain,  if  it  is  not  considered  desirable  to  leave 
it  white.  The  corners  and  edges  of  the  top  may  be  rounded 
off,  to  give  a  finished  appearance. 

I  showed  by  dotted  lines  the  usual  shape  of  the  squared 
legs.  They  are  planed  off,  tapering  from  below  the  frame, 
and  this  phould  be  done  after  the  mortices  are  cut,  and 
before  fitting  the  parts  together.  The  best  way  to  insure 
equal  taper  of  all  the  legs,  is  to  prick  off  at  the  bottom  of 
each  equal  widths  from  the  corners  or  edges,  and  to  run  a 
pencil  line  from  the  point  where  the  taper  is  to  begin  to 
these  marks.  Then  plane  exactly  to  the  lines  thus  made. 

Let  us  now  consider  what  errors  of  construction  are  most 
likely  to  occur  in  working  out  these  directions.  First,  it 
is  possible  that  the  framework  may  be  out  of  square.  This 
may  proceed  from  two  causes.  In  the  first  place,  the  side 
or  end  pieces  may  not  be  of  equal  length  between  the  legs, 
owing  to  some  one  or  two  being  driven  further  into  their 
mortices  than  the  others.  To  avoid  this,  which  is  not  un- 
common in  many  works  of  a  similar  nature,  it  is  well 
always  to  mark  the  length  that  each  is  to  be,  irrespective 
of  the  part  within  the  mortices,  as  Fig.  26,  A  and  B. 
If  the  space  on  each  between  the  dotted  lines  (carefully 
marked  by  means  of  a  square)  is  equal,  it  is  no  matter 
whether  C  and  D  are  also  equal.  We  have  only  to  take 
care  to  let  them  into  the  mortices  to  a  greater  or  less  depth, 
until  the  line  comes  exactly  even  with  the  inside  edge  of 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A   TABLE. 


59 


the  legs.     Again,  it  is  possible  that  when  the   table  is 
placed  upon  its  legs,  these  may  not  rest  truly  on  the  floor. 


Fig.  26. 

Probably  one  or  two  of  the  frame  pieces  run  up  like  E, 
instead  of  standing  at  right  angles  to  the  legs.  This  re- 
sults from  the  mortice  not  being  cut  correctly  ;  and  as  you 
cannot,  in  this  case,  mr.rk  both  sides  and  cut  from  both, 
as  you  did  in  making  the  towel-horse,  this  is  not  unlikely 
to  happen.  It  will  not,  therefore,  signify  much  if  you 
purposely  cut  your  mortices  a  little  too  long,  and  then, 
when  you  have  placed  the  table  on  its  legs,  after  gluing 
up  the  frame,  and  before  it  is  dry,  you  can  force  it  to  stand 


6o 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


truly,  and  then  wedge  up  with  glued  wedges  where  neces- 
sary. You  cannot,  however,  do  this  with  the  sides  of  your 
mortices,  because  you  require  these  to  fit  exactly ;  you 
must  therefore  use  extra  care  in  keeping  these  as  true  as 
possible.  In  many  cases  you  can  wedge  the  ends  of  tenons 
to  correct  a  bad  fit,  but  never  the  sides.  These  are  the 
probable,  or  1  will  say  possible,  faults  against  which  to  be 
on  your  guard. 

In  making  a  similar  table  with  a  drawer,  the  same  opera- 
tions have  to  be  gone  through,  but  the  upper  frame  is  some- 


Fig.  27 

what  dilferently  constructed,  and  the  corneis  of  the  drawer 
are  united  with  dovetails.     Plane  up  the  legs  as  before. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  TABLE.  61 

but  cut  mortices  as  at  A.  Fig.  27,  which  represents  the 
right-hand  hinder  leg  as  you  would  see  it  standing  in  front 
of  the  table,  and  before  the  framework  had  been  fitted  in 
its  place.  B  is  the  other  hind  leg,  with  the  tenoned  strips 
just  ready  to  be  driven  in.  The  piece  E  is  made  as  before, 
as  is  also  C  and  its  opposite  piece  at  the  ends  of  the  table. 
But  this  pair  of  mortices,  you  see,  are  made  shorter  than 
before,  and  the  strip  C  is  notched  at  the  bottom  as  well  as 
at  the  top,  forming  a  regular  tenon,  as  it  is  called.  Below 
this  first  is  a  second  mortice,  cut  the  other  way,  the  longest 
side  standing  across  the  leg  to  receive  a  strip,  D,  upon 
itfhich  afterwards  another  strip,  X,  will  be  nailed  or  glued, 
forming  the  rebate  in  which  the  drawer  will  slide,  and  of 
which  the  upper  surface  must  be  level  with  that  of  the  strip 
M.  There  is  a  plane  for  cutting  out  rebates  without  the 
oecessity  of  adding  a  strip,  but  I  do  not  suppose  you  as 
yet  to  have  such  a  one.  When  these  pieces,  C  and  D,  are 
driven  up  close  into  their  places,  they  will  touch  along 
their  sides,  so  that  on  the  outside  they  will  appear  as  one 
piece.  Of  course  there  will  be  a  similar  pair  on  the  right- 
hand  side  of  the  table.  D  ought  to  be  tenoned,  so  that  the 
gide  on  which  X  is  to  be  nailed  will  lie  flush  or  level  with 
the  corner  of  the  leg,  so  that  the  strip  X  shall  project 
wholly  beyond  it. 

The  left-hand  front  leg  is  shown  at  P,  with  its  mortices, 
and   the  tenoned  strips  between  which  the  front  of  the 


62  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

drawer  will  lie,  closely .  fitting  when  shut.  These  front 
strips  should  be  each  2  inches  wide,  the  mortices  1  inch 
long,  or  as  long  as  you  can  safely  cut  them;  you  must 
tenon  the  cross  pieces,  of  course,  to  fit  these. 

All  the  rails  may  be  of  half-inch  board.  Mark  all  tenons 
across  with  the  square  as  before,  so  as  to  give  the  exact 
inside  dimensions,  and  you  cannot  well  go  wrong.  These 
lines,  too,  will  guide  you  in  keeping  the  framework  square 
and  true ;  for  if  you  have  planed  the  legs  correctly,  and 
your  strips  are  inserted  exactly  to  the  aforesaid  lines,  it 
stands  to  reason  the  work  will  be  satisfactory.  To  make 
the  drawer,  observe,  first,  that  it  is  not  like  a  box  as  most 
boys  would  make  it,  for  when  turned  upside  down,  as  in 
Fig.  28,  Fig.  B,  you  will  find  the  sides  projecting  beyond 
the  bottom,  which  projections  rest  in  the  rebate,  X,  of  the 
last  figure,  and  take  the  whole  weight  of  the  drawer,  en- 
abling it  to  slide  easily  and  smoothly  in  and  out,  especially 
if  those  surfaces  which  are  in  contact  are  rubbed  with  soap 
or  blacklead,  or  a  mixture  of  the  two.  At  C  you  have  a 
drawing  of  the  same,  with  the  bottom  removed.  This,  you 
see,  is  a  square  or  oblong  frame  dovetailed  together,  and 
when  it  is  glued  and  dry,  the  bottom  is  slid  in  along  the 
grooves  in  the  sides  (one  of  which  is  seen  at  x  #),  and  a 
couple  of  brads  driven  through  it  into  the  back  rail,  K, 
fixes  it  completely.  The  front  board  of  the  drawer  is  cut 
and  planed  to  fit  exactly  between  the  two  rails  which  were 


JIOW  TO  MAKE  A  DRAWER. 


morticed  into  the  legs,  as  shown  in  the  last  fig.,  and  is 
always  of  thicker  stuff  than  the  sides  or  bottom.  It  may, 
in  the  present  case,  be  half-inch,  and  the  rest  quarter-inch. 


Fig.  28. 

If  you  look  at  C,  you  will  observe  that  the  front  and 
Bides  of  the  drawer  are  of  the  same  depth,  and  that  only 
the  back  is  narrower.  (Remember  that  in  this  cut  the 
drawer  is  seen  from  below,  the  groove  x  x  being  near  the 
bottom  of  the  sides,  and  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  back.) 

To  cut  dovetails  is  not  difficult,  but  requires  neatness 
and  care — a  fine  saw  (dovetail  or  light  tenon-saw)  and  a 
really  sharp  chisel;  and,  above  all  things,  remember  not 


64  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


to  cut  out  the  lines  which  have  been  drawn  as  guides.  H  is 
the  end  of  the  front  of  the  drawer ;  L  the  left  side.  Having 
cut  out  the  latter,  and  planed  it  up  nicely,  draw  a  line,  by  'the 
aid  of  the  square,  one  quarter  or  three  eighths  of  an  inch 
from  the  end  across  it.  This  will  be  the  line  op  of  the  bottom 
of  the  dovetails.  Then  mark  and  cut  out  two  or  three,  as 
seen  in  the  drawing,  using  the  saw  where  you  are  able,  and 
clearing  out  with  the  chisel  in  other  places.  From  o  p, 
measure  the  exact  inside  width  of  your,  drawer,  and  beyond 
the  second  line  made  across  at  that  distance,  leave  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  for  the  second  dovetails,  and  cut  them  out  as 
you  did  the  first.  Now,  prepare  a  second  precisely  similar 
piece  for  the  opposite  side.  Next  lay  L  in  place  upon  H 
very  truly,  and  with  a  fine-pointed  hard  pencil,  or  a  scriber 
(a  sharp-pointed  steel  marker),  trace  round  the  dovetails, 
marking  them  on  the  end  of  H,  and  with  a  sharp  chisel 
cut  them  in  a  quarter  of  an  inch  deep,  which  will  allow 
them  to  take  the  side  piece  exactly  flush  and  level.  Mark 
these  two  which  have  been  so  fitted,  and  proceed  to  do  the 
same  at  the  other  end  of  the  front  piece,  tracing  these,  as 
before,  from  the  dovetails  of  the  opposite  side,  which  are  to 
be  there  inserted.  You  do  exactly  the  same  with  the  back 
piece ;  but  as  this  is  both  narrower  and  thinner,  the  dove- 
tails will  be  cut  quite  through  it,  and  will  be  seen  on  both 
pieces  after  being  glued  up,  and  there  will  only  be  room 
for  one  dovetail,  instead  of  two.  When  all  are  cut,  Ia3r  the 


HO  W  TO  MAKE  A  DRA  WER.  65 

pieces  in  position,  glue  quickly,  press  all  together,  and 
contrive  to  wedge  up  or  bind  round  the  whole  until  dry, 
testing  with  the  square  and  adjusting,  as  may  be  necessary. 
We  shall  return  to  dovetailing  again,  but  these  not  requir- 
ing excessive  neatness,  will  be  a  good  beginning,  and  show 
\rou  in  what  special  points  care  is  needed  in  such  work. 
Nothing  remains  but  to  plane  a  piece  for  the  bottom,  and 
ilide  it  into  place. 


CHAPTER  V. 


the  last  chapter  we  entered  a  little  upon  the 
matter  of  dovetails,  but  as  the  mode  of  uniting 
the  angles  of  boxes,  drawers,  and  such  like,  is 
of  almost  universal  application,  it  will  be  as  well 
to  devote  a  separate  short  chapter  to  the  subject. 

There  are  several  different  kinds  of  dovetails  used,  accord- 
ing as  it  may  be  desired  to  let  them  appear  upon  the  finished 
work,  or  wholly  or  in  part  to  conceal  them.  Carpenters 
generally  use  the  kind  which  is  visible  on  both  sides, 
cabinetmakers,  as  a  rule,  take  special  pains  to  conceal  it, 
only  using  the  other  form  upon  work  that  is  to  be  after- 
wards covered  with  veneer  (a  thin  covering  of  some 
ornamental  and  more  expensive  wood  glued  upon  the 
surface  of  that  which  is  of  less  value,  and  of  which  the 
article  is  made"). 

The  dovetail  described  in  the  last  chapter,  as  proper  for 
the  attachment  of  the  sides  to  the  front  of  a  drawer,  is  not 
that  which  is  ordinarily  used  by  the  carpenters,  but  the 


DOVETAILING.  67 


following,  which  is  somewhat  more  easy  to  make,  and  is 
the  same  as  would  be  used  for  the  other  corners  of  such 
a  common  drawer  as  that  described. 

I  must  at  the  outset  remind  my  young  readers  once  again 
of  the  standard  rule,  without  due  attention  to  which  they 
have  no  hope  of  success  in  this  neat  and  delicate  operation 
of  carpentry.  Never  cut  out  your  guide  lines,  but  leave  them 
upon  your  work,  and  use  your  square  diligently  upon  the 
edges  of  your  work,  the  bottom  of  the  dovetails,  sides  of  the 
same,  and  upon  the  sides  of  the  pins.  Never  mind  the 
time  necessary  for  this.  You  are  doing  work,  remember, 
that  is  to  bear  inspection, — work  that  will  stand  wear,  and 
be  really  useful  in  the  household  to  which  you  have  the 
honour  to  belong.  You  would  not  therefore  like  to  see 
open  spaces  here  and  there,  requiring  to  be  filled  up  with 
putty,  or  the  side  of  the  box  not  truly  square  to  the  back 
and  front.  And  it  may  be  noted  here,  that  if  dovetails  are 
properly  fitted  together,  the  box  or  other  article  will  stand 
firm,  even  before  the  glue  is  added ;  but  if  the  same  are 
badly  cut,  and  put  together  carelessly,  no  amount  of  glue 
will  avail  to  hold  the  work  securely ;  and  it  would  have  been 
as  well  or  better  never  to  have  attempted  dovetailing,  as 
Buch  bad  work  would  be  stronger  united  by  nails,  and  in 
any  case  is  but  a  disgrace  to  the  young  amateur  mechanic, 
whose  motto  should  always  be,  "  Whatever  is  worth  doing  at 
all  is  worth 


68 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


You  will  remember  how  you  were  taught  to  wedge  up 
mortice  and  tenon  joints  with  glued  wedges,  which,  becom- 
ing part  of  the  tenon,  and  rendering  it  larger  below  than 


above,  prevents  it  from  being  withdrawn  from  the  mortice. 
Kow,  a  single  dovetail  has  the  same  effect,  and  is  in  point 
of  fact  of  the  same  shape  and  size  as  the  tenon  with  its 


DOVETAILING.  6g 

wedges  attached.     See  Fig.  29,  A  and  B,  the  first  being  a 
wedged  tenon,  the  second  a  dovetail. 

We  shall  begin  with  a  single  dovetail,  which  is  applied  to 
the  construction  of  presses  used  by  bookbinders  and  others, 
and  also  domestically  for  house-linen.  In  these  there  is  a 
strong  tendency  to  draw  the  sides  upwards,  and  to  tear  them 
from  the  bottom — a  strain  which  this  form  of  joint  is  exactly 
calculated  to  withstand.  The  same  is  also  used  in  making 
many  kinds  of  frames,  where  similar  strength  in  one 
direction  is  necessary.  If  you  have  no  special  need  of  such 
at  present,  you  should  nevertheless  make  one  or  two  for 
practice,  and  to  give  you  a  better  insight  into  their  con- 
struction. Indeed,  if  you  cannot  make  single  dovetails 
well,  you  will  hardly  succeed  in  making  a  whole  row  of  them 
exactly  alike,  for  joining  together  other  articles,  as  drawers, 
boxes,  and  cabinets.  C  ot  this  fig.  represents  a  bar  of  wood 
truly  squared  up,  and  ready  for  being  marked  out.  The 
square  is  laid  across  it  as  seen,  and  a  line  drawn  on  each 
side  by  its  assistance,  as  far  from  one  end  as  is  the  thick- 
ness of  the  other  piece  to  which  it  is  to  be  attached,  and  a 
little  over  (say  one-eighth  of  an  inch)  which  will  afterwards 
be  neatly  planed  off.  This  is  allowed  merely  because  the 
extreme  angles  at  e  e  sometimes  get  damaged  in  cutting 
out  the  dovetail,  and  if  they  are,  they  will  have  to  be 
removed.  Having  drawn  the  above  line  all  round  the 
piece,  divide  it  into  three  by  the  aid  of  your  compasses,  as 


70  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

shown,  on  what  we  may  call  the  front  and  back,  and  then 
on  both  these  sides  draw  lines,  e  e,  to  the  angle.  You  now 
have  the  dovetail,  or  rather  the  pin  of  the  dovetail,  marked, 
and  with  a  fine  saw  you  have  only  to  cut  out  this  piece  a? 
you  see  at  D,  taking  great  care  to  cut  accurately  close  to 
the  lines,  but  to  leave  them,  nevertheless,  on  the  edge  of  the 
piece  you  are  about  to  use. 

If  you  can  saw  truly,  you  should  not  have  to  touch  these 
pieces  with  a  chisel,  but  if  not,  you  must  take  a  very  sharp 
one,  and  pare  the  wood  exactly  true  to  the  lines  which  you 
have  marked.  Now  the  dovetail  made  by  dividing  the 
width  of  the  stuff  into  three,  as  given  here,  will  not  answer 
so  well  for  pine,  which  is  liable  to  split  off  in  the  line  H  H 
of  the  fig.  D ;  but  for  ash,  beech,  elm,  and  such  like,  it  is  a 
good  proportion.  If  the  material,  therefore,  is  pine,  divide 
it  into  four  instead  of  three,  as  seen  at  E,  and  draw  lines  to 
the  angles  from  the  two  outer  marks  ;  or,  without  any  such 
division,  set  out  equal  distances  from  each  side,  so  as  to 
give  about  this  proportion  to  the  pieces  which  are  to  be 
cut  out. 

Where  there  are  a  row  of  dovetails  to  be  made  (as  in 
cabinet  work),  even  this  latter  measurement  into  four  would 
make  them  too  angular,  as  you  will  learn  presently.  You 
must  now  fix  upright  in  your  vice  the  piece  in  which  is  to 
be  cut  the  dovetail  to  receive  this  pin ;  and  laying  the  latter 
in  place  as  it  will  be  when  the  frame  or  other  work  is  put 


DOVETAILING.  71 

together,  draw  round  it  with  a  sharp  pencil  or  scriber,  as 
Been  on  the  end  of  K  (the  lines  c  d,  at  such  distance  from 
the  end  of  the  piece  as  is  the  thickness  of  the  pin,  and  the 
perpendiculars,  a  d,  are  to  be  drawn  with  the  square) ;  and 
if  the  angles  of  such  pin  do  not  reach  the  angles  of  that  in 
which  the  dovetail  is  to  be  cut,  as  will  ofcen  be  the  case,  the 
lines  on  the  opposite  side  similar  to  a  b  must  be  also  drawn 
with  the  square.  So  yon  see  that  I  was  quite  right  in 
directing  you  to  add  a  square  to  your  box  of  tools,  even 
before  many  other  requisites  of  carpentry. 

If  it  is  not  considered  desirable  that  the  dovetail 
should  reach  the  extreme  angles  of  the  pieces,  as  a  3,  fig. 
K,  the  pin  piece  is  first  marked  as  if  for  an  ordinary  tenon, 
and  the  dovetailed  pin  marked  on  this,  as  M.  When  the 
fellow-piece  is  cut  out,  it  will  then  appear  as  N.  The  effect 
will  be  the  same  as  the  last,  except  that  the  end  of  the  pin 
will  be  more  conspicuous.  A  great  deal  depends  upon  the 
material,  and  on  the  intended  use  of  the  finished  article, 
therefore  you  must  use  your  own  judgment,  or  consult  that 
of  others  better  acquainted  with  the  art  than  yourself. 
L  shows  the  dovetailed  joint  complete  as  last  de- 
scribed. 

We  now  recur  to  the  row  of  dovetails  and  pins — or  dove- 
tails and  sockets,  as  the  part  is  ofcen  called  which  is  to  receive 
the  pins.  The  most  common  kind  is  that  represented  by  A 
B,  Fig.  30  ;  and  as  you  ought  now  to  be  thinking  of  a  larger 


THE  YC  UNG  MECHANIC. 


tool-box,  and  would  not  like  it  roughly  nailed  together  like 
the  first,  you  might  try  your  skill  by  constructing  one 
more  worthy  of  the  name,  and  with  a  drawer  or  two  in  it 


Fig.  30. 

You  must  begin,  as  before,  by  marking  the  two  lines  across 
your  work  by  the  edge  of  the  square,  or,  if  you  prefer  it,  by 
your  gauge,  which,  when  set  to  the  thickness  of  one  piece, 
will  mark  the  others  correctly;  and  remember  to  mark  both 


DOVETAILING.  73 

tides.  Then  set  out  your  dovetails,  but  do  not  make  them 
so  angular  as  you  did  the  single  one ;  for  remember  you 
have  a  whole  row  of  them  to  assist  in  holding  the  work 
together,  and  when  glued,  this  will  be  of  necessity  a  very 
strong  and  reliable  joint,  if  well  made. 

Always  make  the  pins  before  the  sockets,  and  mark 
round  them  as  closely  as  possible,  and  take  great  care  when 
sawing  not  to  break  them,  and  if  possible  keep  their  angles 
also  very  sharp  and  clean.  It  is  solely  care  in  these  parti- 
culars, and  accurate  cutting  just  to  the  gauge  lines  and  no 
further,  that  makes  carpenters'  work  generally  so  superior 
to  that  of  amateurs,  and  boys  especially  are  generally  care- 
less, and  in  too  great  a  hurry  to  get  the  work  done,  that 
they  may  go  to  something  else.  Remember,  therefore,  that 
when  you  begin  to  hurry  your  work,  you  begin  to  spoil  it. 

I  have  made  the  drawings  of  the  three  principal  dove- 
tailed joints  so  plain  as  to  render  special  description  almost 
unnecessary  after  the  remarks  already  made.  The  second 
and  third,  however,  may  need  a  few  words,  as  they  differ 
slightly  from  that  used  in  the  drawer,  of  which  a  description 
has  been  given,  chiefly  because  the  piece  in  which  the . 
dovetails  are,  is,  in  this  case,  as  thick  as  that  used  for  the 
sockets. 

Suppose  the  dovetails  o.nd  pins  marked  out  ready  to  be 
cut  Take  your  marking-gauge  and  set  the  slide  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  froi*1  the  point,  and  run  a  lin',  across  the 


74  THE   YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

ends  of  the  two  pieces  at  A  B,  and  at  C  D,  and  also  at  E  F 
Stop  at  A  B  when  you  cut  the  sockets,  and  take  care  to  get 
the  bottoms  of  these  quite  square  and  even.  Cut  the  dove- 
tails or  pins  as  directed  in  making  the  drawer,  but  stop  on 
the  lines  £/and  g  h  (the  latter  also  to  be  made  with  the 
gauge  on  both  edges  of  the  work),  thus  the  two  pieces  will, 
of  necessity,  fit  nicely  together,  and  only  a  single  line  will 
appear  a  little  way  from  one  corner.  If  all  lines  are  made 
with  gauge  and  square,  this  form  of  dovetail  may  require 
neatness  and  care,  but  will  not  be  beyond  the  skill  even 
of  a  young  mechanic.  I  should  indeed  advise  that  ever} 
opportunity  be  taken  of  joining  pieces  of  wood  with  tenon 
or  with  dovetail,  because,  after  all,  these  are  the  chief 
difficulties  to  be  encountered.  If  you  can  square  up  your 
work,  and  make  true-fitting  joints,  there  is  little  in  carpen- 
try and  joinery  that  you  cannot  accomplish. 

The  third  example  is  worked  exactly  like  the  second,  but 
instead  of  leaving  square  the  pieces  projecting  beyond  the 
dovetails  and  pins,  these  are  sloped  off  or  bevelled  carefully 
from  the  extreme  corners  down  to  the  pins  and  sockets. 
The  result  is,  that  when  put  together,  no  joint  appears,  as 
it  is  exactly  upon  the  angle.  There  is  no  neater  or  stronger 
method  than  this  of  joining  the  sides  of  drawers,  boxes, 
trays,  and  such  like  articles.  The  cabinetmaker  employs 
no  other  for  heavy  work  ;  only  when  it  is  very  light  does  he 
make  use  of  a  plan,  the  appearance  of  which  is  (when 


MITRING.  75 


finished)  like  the  last-described,  but  it  is  less  trouble  to 
make,  and  less  strong,  yet  sufficiently  so  for  many  pur- 
poses. This  method  is  called  mitring,  and  is  accom- 
plished in  the  following  way. 

The  wood  (let  it  be  for  a  small  tray)  is  prepared  as  usual, 
truly  and  evenly,  and  the  ends  exactly  square  to  the  sides. 
If  you  use  stuff  about  a  quarter  or  half  an  inch  thick,  or 
even  an  eighth  (the  first  or  last  being  suitable  for  such 
light  work),  you  can  make  a  mitred  joint  with  the  help  of 
the  gauge  alone,  but  frequently  a  mitre-board  or  mitre-box 
is  used,  which  saves  some  trouble  in  measuring  and  mark- 
ing. It  is  well,  however,  that  you  should  begin  with  thi.s 
trouble,  and  take  up  the  easier  method  afterwards ;  espe- 
cially as  it  will  in  this  case  give  you  a  simple  lesson  in 
mathematics,  and  teach  you  some  of  the  properties  of  the 
figure  called  a  square.  Let  us  commence  with  this  lesson. 

A,  B,  C,  D,  Fig.  31,  is  a  square;  the  lines  at  the 
opposite  sides  are  parallel, — that  is,  they  are  exactly  the 
same  distance  apart  from  one  end  to  the  other.  To  make 
this  clear,  E  and  F  are  given,  which  are  not  parallel,  for 
they  are  further  apart  at  one  end  than  they  are  at  the 
other.  And  as  A  B  is  parallel  to  C  D,  and  A  C  parallel 
to  B  D,  so  A  B  is  perpendicular  to  B  D  and  to  A  C,  or 
what  we  have  called  square  to  it,  as  you  would  find  with 
your  square,  which  is  made,  as  you  know,  to  prove  your 
work  in  this  respect  The  consequence  is,  that  the  angles 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


(or  corners)  are  all  alike,  and  are  called  right  angles. 
Understand  what  is  meant  by  angles  being  the  same  size 
or  alike.  M  and  H  are  alike,  though  the  lines  of  one  are  a 


Fig.  81. 

great  deal  longer  than  those  of  the  other ;  but  though  the 
lines  of  K  and  H  are  the  same  length,  the  angle  K  is 
much  smaller  than  that  at  H. 

As  I  have  gone  a  little  into  this  subject,  I  will  go  a 
little  further,  for  it  is  as  well  that  you  should  learn  all 
about  the  sizes  of  angles,  and  I  only  know  of  one  way  in 
which  to  make  the  matter  clear 


MITRING.  77 


Every  circle,  no  matter  how  small  or  large,  is  supposed 
to  be  divided  into  360  equal  parts,  called  degrees.  That 
large  circle  which  forms  the  circumference  of  the  earth  is 
considered  to  be  so  divided.  Now,  if  we  draw  lines  from 
all  these  divisions  to  the  centre,  they  will  meet  there,  and 
form  a  number  of  equal  angles.  I  have  not  divided  the 
circle  P  all  round,  because  it  would  make  so  many  angles 
that  you  could  not  see  them  clearly ;  but  I  have  put  360  at 
the  top,  and  then  45,  which  means,  that  if  I  had  marked 
all  the  divisions,  there  would  be  45  up  to  that  point. 
Then  at  45  more  I  have  marked  90,  and  so  on,  marking 
each  45th  division,  and  from  these  I  have  drawn  lines  to 
the  centre  of  the  circle.  Now,  if  you  understand  me  so 
far,  we  shall  get  on  famously.  Look  at  the  line  from  360 
to  the  centre,  and  that  from  90°,  and  see  where  they  join. 
This  is  a  right  angle,  and  this  is  the  angle  at  each  corner 
of  a  square.  At  N,  I  have  drawn  this  separately  to  make 
it  clear,  and  you  see  I  have  taken  a  quarter  of  the  circle, 
or  the  quadrant,  as  it  is  called,  of  90°.  And  you  now  see 
that  I  might  extend  the  lines  beyond  the  circle  to  any 
extent,  but  it  would  make  no  difference, — we  should  still 
have  90°  of  a  circle,  only  the  circle  would  be  larger,  as 
those  which  are  partly  drawn  with  the  dotted  lines. 

Now,  all  angles  are  thus  measured  by  the  divisions  of 
a  circle ;  the  line  at  45,  which  meets  the  line  from  360  at 
the  centre,  makes  with  it  an  angle  of  45°,  which  is  half  a 


78  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

tight  angle.  A  line  drawn  at  30°  would  make  an  angle  of 
30  with  the  same  line  from  360,  and  so  on  right  round ; 
only  when  two  lines  come  exactly  opposite  one  another,  as 
360  and  180,  or  270  and  90,  these  make  no  angles— they 
are  but  one  straight  line  passing  through  the  centre,  and 
are  called  diameters  of  the  circle,  a  word  which  means 
measure  through,  or  across  the  circle.  Now,  the  corners  of 
a  square  frame,  or  of  a  drawer  or  box,  are  right  angles  oi 
90°.  At  R,  I  have  drawn  such  a  corner  of  a  frame,  and  if 
I  place  one  point  of  a  pair  of  compasses  at  £,  and  draw  a 
circle  cutting  through  the  lines  of  the  sides  of  the  frame, 
you  see  I  should  make  it  90°,  or  a  quadrant,  like  N. 
Moreover,  if  I  draw  the  sides  of  the  frame  as  if  they 
crossed  as  at  e  R,  I  draw  a  small  square,  and  the  line 
e  R  is  the  diagonal  of  such  square :  e  R  is  the  mitred 
joint  I  have  to  cut.  Look  at  T  S  and  you  will  see  this, 
as  here  the  two  sides  of  the  frame  are  represented  as  cut 
ready  to  be  joined  together. 

A  square  has  another  quality :  all  its  sides  are  equal, 
and  this  is  very  important,  and  will  help  us  in  cutting  out 
the  work,  x  Y  represents  the  strip  of  wood  to  be  properly 
sloped  off  for  a  mitred  joint.  With  a  gauge  such  as  that 
just  above  x,  or  your  regular  marking  gauge,  set  off  on 
the  side  Y  a  distance  equal  to  x  x  (the  midl'i  of  the 
pieces) ;  join  x  b  by  a  line,  and  you  will  have  the  right 
elope.  Why  ?  Because  when  you  measured  with  the  gauge 


MITRING.  79 

you  marked  the  two  equal  sides  of  a  square,  and  x  b  is  the 
d:agonal  of  it,  which  is  exactly  the  same  as  you  had  at 
e  R.  By  measuring  in  this  way,  therefore,  you  can,  if 
your  strips  are  already  truly  squared  up,  always  mark  out 
a  mitred  joint  correctly.  The  two  little  angles  at  x  and  b 
ire  also,  I  should  point  out,  equal — each  half  of  a  right- 
angle  or  45°,  and  the  other  strip  or  side  of  the  frame  will 
make  up  the  other  half  right  angle,  or  complete  the  exact 
square  of  90°. 

In  all  this  I  have  clearly  laid  down  the  principles  of 
mitred  joints,  and  given  you  a  lesson  in  mathematics.  I 
shall  now,  therefore,  go  on  to  the  work  of  practical  con- 
struction (Fig.  32).  You  must  be  very  careful  to  make  the 
edge  B  square  to  the  side  A,  as  in  all  other  work  which  I 
have  explained  to  you ;  or,  if  this  side  is  moulded  like  the 
front  of  a  picture-frame,  you  must  square  the  edge  with 
the  back.  After  having  cut  all  the  pieces,  you  have  to 
glue  them  and  fasten  them  together.  Warm  them,  and 
use  the  glue  boiling,  as  directed  before,  and  quickly  lay  the 
pieces  together.  To  do  so  effectually,  you  must  place  them 
flat  on  a  board  or  on  your  bench,  and  having  adjusted 
them,  you  can  tie  a  strong  cord  round  the  whole,  putting 
little  bits  of  wood  close  to  the  corners,  so  that  the  string 
shall  not  mark  your  work,  if  such  marks  would  be  of  con « 
sequence.  Or  you  can  wedge  up  strongly  in  another  way. 
Tf  you  look  at  C  you  will  see  a  square  representing  a  frame 


8o 


THE   YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


with  eight  spots  round  it.  These  are  nail  heads,  and  mark 
the  position  of  eight  nails  driven  round  but  not  touching 
the  frame  into  the  bench.  Then,  having  prepaied  eight 
small  wedges,  drive  them  in  between  the  frame  and  the 
nails. 

You  will  find  this  as  simple  and  easy  a  way  of  keeping  the 
frame  together  as  any,  and  all  must  remain  till  the  glue  ia 
dry  and  hard — probably  till  the  same  hour  on  the  following 
day  ?  Then  remove  the  wedges  and  take  up  your  frame, 
which  should  be  trim  and  strong.  Nevertheless,  you  are 
now  to  add  considerably  to  the  strength  of  it  in  one  or  both 
of  the  following  ways. 

With  a  mitre-saw  or  tenon-saw  cut  one  or  two  slits  at 
each  angle,  as  seen  at  D,  Fig.  32,  e  and/.  Cut  little  pieces 


Fig,  82, 

of  thin  wood,  and  having  glued  them,  drive  them  into  these 
slits.  If  you  saw  them  slanting,  some  tending  upwards 
and  some  downwards,  it  will  be  better  than  cutting  straight 
into  the  frame.  Then,  when  all  is  dry,  neatly  trim  off 


MITRING.  S\ 


these  pieces  even  with  the  frame.  You  may  also,  if  the 
work  is  of  a  more  heavy  kind,  as  a  large  picture-frame, 
finish  with  keyed  mitres,  g.  Cut  a  place  with  a  chisel  of 
the  shape  here  shown,  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  deep, 
half  into  one  piece  and  half  into  the  other.  Then  cut  out 
a  key  of  the  same  form  of  thin  hard  wood,  to  fit  exactly, 
and  glue  it  in.  The  shape  of  the  key  prevents  the  joint 
from  coming  apart,  and  makes  it  very  strong  and  durable. 
A  very  large  number  of  light  boxes  are  made  with  mitred 
joints,  as  workboxes,  water-colour  boxes,  compass-boxes, 
and  such  like  ;  and  you  can  examine  these  for  yourself;  but 
you  will  not  often  see  the  keys  at  the  angles,  because  most 
of  such  boxes  are  veneered,  or  covered  when  finished  with 
a  thin  layer  of  some  ornamental  wood. 

I  shall  now  proceed  to  show  you  how  these  joints  can  be 
cut  at  once  without  the  trouble  of  gauging  and  measuring 
to  find  the  proper  angle.  Therefore  I  shall  let  you  into  the 
secret  of  mitring  boxes  and  mitring  boards,  which,  if  you 
had  much  to  do  of  this  kind,  would  shorten  your  work 
considerably. 

Fig.  33,  A,  represents  a  mitring-board,  B  a  mitring- 
box.  We  must  go  into  a  little  mathematics  again,  and  try 
to  understand  these,  because,  if  you  do  so,  you  may  devise 
others,  occasionally  more  suitable  for  any  special  work  you 
have  in  hand. 

First,  look  at  D  of  this  figure.     You  have  a  line,  a  6t 

¥ 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


..-*-  § 


MITRING  BOARDS  AND  BOXES.  83 

standing  upon  another  C  D,  and  perpendicular  to  it — that 
is,  it  leans  neither  to  the  right  nor  to  the  left.  It  makes 
two  angles  at  b,  one  on  each  side  of  a  b,  and  these  are 
angles  of  90°,  or  right  angles,  as  I  explained.  Now,  if  one 
line  like  a  b  stands  on  another,  these  two  angles  are 
together  equal  to  180°,  or  twice  90°,  whether  this  line  is  or  is 
not  upright  or  perpendicular  to  the  other.  Look  at  fig.  C. 
Here  you  have  the  line  x  #,  and  standing  on  it  several 
others ;  one,  a  b,  is  upright  or  perpendicular,  making  with  it 
two  angles  of  90°  each,  or  180°  together.  Now,  take/  b,  and 
suppose  this  to  make  45°  on  the  right-hand  side,  you  see  it 
makes  therefore  a  proportionately  larger  angle  on  the  other. 
It  makes,  in  fact,  an  angle  of  135°.  But  135°  added  to  45° 
equals  180°,  which  is  the  same  as  before,  and  whichever 
line  you  take,  the  angles  together  made  by  it  at  b  will 
equal  180°  of  the  circle — that  is,  they  will  equal  two  right- 
angles. 

Now,  if  I  take  the  fig.  D  again,  and  carry  on  the  Hue 
a  b  right  through  c  d,  where  it  is  dotted,  two  angles  will  be 
made  on  the  other  side  of  c  d,  which  will  each  be  right 
angles  of  90°  as  before,  so  that  all  the  four  angles  thus 
made  are  equal.  It  follows  from  this,  that  whenever'  any 
two  lines  cut  each  other — E  Q  and  E  S  for  instance — the 
angles  at  T  equal  four  right  angles,  no  matter  whether  the 
lines  are  or  are  not  perpendicular  to  each  other :  and  what 
is  more  (and  what  I  specially  want  you  to  note),  the 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


opposite  angles  are  equal — i.e,  the  two  small  ones,  or  the 
two  large  ones. 

The  action  of  a  mitre-block  or  mitre-box  depends  upon 
the  principles  here  laid  down,  so  you  see  that  although  few 
carpenters  understand  much  about  mathematics,  and  simply 
work  as  they  were  taught,  without  knowing  or  caring  why, 
those  who  planned  the  method  of  work,  and  invented 
mitre-boards  and  such  like  devices  to  shorten  work  and 
lessen  labour,  must  have  understood  a  great  deal  about 
such  things.  And  so  it  is  generally,  as  you  will  find  with 
inventions :  things  look  easy  enough,  and  natural  enough, 
when  we  ses  them  every  day ;  but  it  has  taken  a  great  deal 
of  thought  and  sound  knowledge  to  invent  them  in  the 
first  place,  and  a  great  deal  of  practical  experience  to  con- 
struct them  so  neatly.  Even  a  common  pin  goes  through 
such  a  number  of  processes  as  would  surprise  you,  if  you 
have  never  been  able  to  see  them  made. 

Look  carefully  at  A.  It  represents  a  block  of  wood, 
about  1£  or  2  inches  thick,  and  3  or  4  wide,  firmly  screwed 
on  the  top  of  a  board  1  inch  thick.  The  length  is  about 
18  inches.  Two  saw-cuts  are  made  with  a  tenon-saw,  right 
through  the  block  to  the  board,  at  angles  of  45°  with  the 
line  a  b.  These  are  guides  for  the  saw  to  work  in.  The 
wood  to  be  cut  is  laid  against  the  edge  of  the  block,  and 
rests  on  the  board,  and  the  saw  is  then  applied  in  one  of 
the  grooves  while  the  wood  is  being  cut  by  it.  Let  H  be 


MITRING  BOARDS  AND  BOXES.  85 

each  a  piece.  If  the  saw  is  put  in  the  left-hand  slit,  it  will 
cut  it  like  y;  if  in  the  other,  it  will  cut  it  the  other  way, 
like  x;  and  thus,  if  a  piece  is  taken  off  at  each  end,  it  will 
be  as  you  see,  ready  to  become  one  side  of  a  frame.  Now, 
examine  K,  which  shows  all  the  lines  or  edges  of  the 
mitring-board,  as  seen  from  above,  with  the  strip  a  b  sawn 
across  in  the  line  c  a.  The  lines  a  b  and  c  a  cross  each 
other,  making  the  opposite  angles  equal ;  and  as  one  angle 
is  45°  the  other  must  be  45°  also,  so  that  the  right-hand 
side  of  the  strip  is  correctly  cut.  But  so  also  is  the  other 
end,  and  if  we  turn  it  over,  it  will  exactly  fit,  and  the  twc 
will  form  two  sides  of  a  square.  I  could  prove  to  you  that 
the  second  strip  contains  angles  exactly  similar  to  the  first, 
but  you  ought  to  be  able  now  to  detect  the  reason  for  your- 
self, and  I  do  not  want  to  teach  you  more  mathematics  at 
present,  as  I  am  afraid  you  are  tired  of  these,  and  will 
want  to  go  on  with  the  real  work  of  fitting  and  making. 
I  have,  however,  said  enough,  I  think,  to  make  you  compre- 
hend why  the  two  saw-cuts  must  be  at  an  angle  of  45°  with 
the  edge  of  the  top  board. 

Perhaps  you  wish  to  make  your  own  board,  however,  and 
would  like  to  know  an  easy  way  to  get  the  saw-cuts  at  the 
right  angle  ?  I  shall  therefore  show  you  how  to  do  this, 
but  you  must  be  very  exact  in  your  workmanship.  A  B, 
Fig.  34,  is  the  piece  of  thick  board  as  seen  from  above,  and 
close  to  it  is  a  perspective  view  of  the  same  which  shows 


86  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

the  thickness.  Set  off  a  distance,  A  E,  equal  to  A  C,  and 
join  C  E.  The  dotted  line  shows  you  that  C  E  is  the 
diagonal  of  a  square,  and  the  angles  at  C  and  E  are  con 
sequently  each  45°;  but  we  do  not  want  this  line  to  end  at 
C,  it  is  too  exactly  at  the  corner  for  convenience.  Measure, 
therefore,  a  distance,  E  b  and  C  a,  equal,  and  join  a  £, 
which  will  be  the  place  for  the  saw-cut ;  and  the  other  can 
be  marked  out  in  exactly  the  same  way.  a  x,  in  the  per 
spective  view,  must  be  carefully  marked  by  the  help  of  the 
square.  Take  care  to  mark  the  line  on  the  bottom  board, 
where  the  edge  of  this  upper  thick' piece  will  fall,  and  screw 
the  two  firmly  together.  If  the  edge  and  face  of  the  thick 
piece  are  not  truly  square  to  each  other,  the  mitres  cut  thus 
will  not  be  correct ;  but,  if  all  is  well  made,  they  may  be 
glued  at  once  together,  no  paring  of  the  chisel  being  neces- 
sary or  desirable. 

The  mitre-box,  Fig.  33,  B,  is  on  precisely  the  same  prin 
ciple,  but  is  chiefly  used  to  cut  narrow  strips  not  over  2 
inches  wide ;  it  should  be  neatly  made  of  mahogany,  half 
<m  inch  thick.  There  is  also  generally  made  a  saw-cut 
straight  across,  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  box  or 
board,  which  is  convenient  in  sawing  across  such  strips  of 
wood,  as  it  saves  the  necessity  of  marking  lines  against  the 
edge  of  the  square  :  of  course,  it  is  specially  used  where  a 
large  number  of  strips  have  to  be  cut  square  across.  In  all 
these  you  observe  one  saw-cut  leaning  to  the  right,  the 


'MITRING  BOARDS  AND  BOXES. 


87 


other  to  the  left.  This  is  necessary  when  picture-frames 
or  moulded  pieces  have  to  be  cut  to  45°,  because  you  can- 
not, of  course,  turn  such  pieces  over  and  use  either  side, 
which  you  can  do  when  the  piece  has  no  such  mouldings. 

Several  modifications  exist  of  mitr ing-boards ;  some 
arranged  for  sawing,  and  some  for  planing ;  and  where 
thousands  of  frames  have  to  be  cheaply  made,  the  angles 
are  cut  off  with  circular  saws,  of  which  I  need  not  speak 


Fig.  34. 

particularly  here,  but  which  I  shall  probably  have  to 
describe  in  a  future  page.  In  Fig.  34,  K,  I  have  shown 
one  corner  of  a  simple  picture-frame,  covered  with  what  is 
called  rustic  work,  that  is — short  pieces  of  oak,  ash,  or 
other  wood  cut  from  the  tree,  left  with  the  bark  on,  or 


88  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

peeled  and  varnished.  These  are  nailed  on  with 
brads ;  and,  if  well  assorted  and  arranged,  this  will  have  a 
very  neat  appearance,  suiting  well  for  rooms  fitted  up  in 
oak,  as  many  studies  and  libraries  are.  In  picture-frames, 
however,  a  rebate  (called  rabbit)  has  to  be  made  at  the 
back,  like  L,  in  which  the  picture  with  its  glass  and  back- 
board has  to  rest ;  and  this  requires  a  special  plane.  The 
front  also  is  always  either  sloped  o£f  or  moulded.  I  shall 
therefore  make  this  kind  of  work  the  subject  of  my  next 
chapter,  and  describe  the  operations  of  rebating,  grooving, 
tongueing.  and  moulding. 


•HAPTER 


VI. 


HESE  operations,  which  are  frequently  required 
in  carpentry,  are  done  on  a  small  scale  by 
planes.  On  a  larger  scale,  circular  saws  and 
other  machinery  are  widely  and  extensively 
made  use  of  for  the  same  purpose,  as  being  much  more 
rapid  and  economical.  Of  course,  the  young  mechanic  will 
employ  the  more  usual  method,  and  the  present  chapter 
will  therefore  treat  of  the  planes  necessary  for  the  above 
Work,  and  the  method  of  using  them. 

The  common  rebate  or  rabbit  plane  comes  first.  This  is 
of  various  widths  ;  an  inch  being  a  very  useful  size.  It  is 
different  in  many  respects  from  the  smoothing-plant,  being 
made  with  a  single  iron  only,  which  is  so  arranged  as  to 
reach  into  angular  recesses,  which  could  not  be  touched  by 
the  ordinary  plane,  of  which  the  iron  does  not  extend  quite 
to  either  side  of  the  sole.  Fig.  35,  A  and  B,  will  illustrate 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


this.  A  represents  the  plane  as  seen  from  above  and  at 
one  side,  B  gives  the  perspective  view  of  the  sole,  C  repre- 
sents the  iron,  D  the  wedge.  Let  us  suppose  a  rebate 
required  upon  a  strip  1  inch  thick,  the  same  to  be  half  an 


inch  wide  and  deep.  A  gauge  is  first  set  to  the  required 
distance,  and  a  line  is  marked  on  both  faces,  as  a  guide  for 
•the  action  of  the  plane.  After  a  little  practice  it  will  be 
found  easy  to  guide  the  entry  of  the  plane  with  the  left- 
hand,  grasping  it  so  as  partly  to  overlap  the  sole,  and  thus 
determine  the  width  of  the  cut,  which  must  not  at  first  be 
carried  to  the  full  width  required,  but  may  be  brought 
within  an  eighth  of  an  inch  of  such  gauge  line,  and  the 
material  removed  sometimes  from  one  face  of  the  rebate 
and  sometimes  from  the  other,  taking  care  to  keep  it  nicely- 
square. 

At  first  it  is  an  easier  plan  to   nail   on  with  brads  a 


REBATE-PLANES. 


strip  of  wood  accurately  planed,  which  in  this  case,  as  the 
sole  of  the  plane  is  1  inch  wide,  must  cover  it  from  end  to 
tnd  to  a  width  of  half  an  inch.  This  will  prevent  the  pos 
sibility  of  going  too  deep  into  cut,  and  insure  the  correct- 
ness of  the  rebate,  Fig.  35  H.  The  injury  to  the  sole  will 
not  be  great  if  small  brads  are  used,  but  at  the  same  time 
it  is  better  to  learn  the  art  of  using  the  hand  as  a  guide, 
which  is  the  more  general  method  of  the  working  car- 
penter. As  for  the  use  of  rebates,  there  are  few  pieces  of 
cabinet-work  or  joinery  in  which  they  are  not  found,  and 
as  stated  in  the  previous  chapter,  no  picture-frame  can  be 
made  without  them.  The  shavings  which  escape  from  the 
rebate-frame  do  not  rise  out  of  the  top,  as  in  the  smoothing- 
plane,  but  from  the  side,  which  is  hollowed  out  for  the  pur- 
pose, as  seen  in  the  drawing. 

The  skew  rebate-plane  is  made  like  the  preceding  one, 
but  the  iron,  instead  of  standing  at  right  angles  to  the 
sides,  is  placed  at  an  angle.  With  this  you  can  plane 
across  the  grain  of  the  wood. 

The  next  plane  to  be  noticed,  is  that  with  which 
grooves  are  cut,  such  as  you  will  often  see  in  the  sides 
of  book-shelves,  in  which  the  several  shelves  slide.  The 
same  is  done  where  two  boards  are  to  be  joined  length- 
wise, and  there  is  danger  of  their  becoming  separated 
as  the  wood  shrinks  in  drying.  The  panels  of  doors, 
too,  are  slid  into  similar  grooves  in  the  styles  and 


92 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


rails  of  the  frame-work,  and  there  are  innumerable  other 
cases  in  which  this  mode  of  work  is  carried  out.  These 
grooves  are  generally  cut  with  the  plough,  a  curious-looking 
tool,  by  no  means  like  a  plane  in  appearance,  but  of  great 
use  to  the  carpenter.  Of  course,  we  require  various  widths 
of  such  grooves,  according  to  the  special  purpose  intended, 
and  these  are  determined  by  various  widths  of  the  cutting 
irons,  which,  however,  all  fix  into  the  same  stock  ;  a  dozen 
or  more  of  such  irons  are  sold  with  a  single  plane. 

In  Fig.  36  is  a  set  of  drawings  explanatory  of  the  above 
tooL     The  central  part,  or  stock,  is  that  which  corresponds 


Fig.  36. 

to  the  same  in  other  planes,  and  it  is  only  modified  to  suit 
the  other  parts,  which  simply  act  as  guides  or  gauges  regu- 


THE  PLOUGH.  93 


latin g  the  distance  of  the  grooves  from  the  edge  of  the 
board,  and  the  depth  to  which  they  are  to  be  cut.  When 
the  arms,  A  A,  are  removed,  you  have  the  plane  as  it  appears 
with  a  brass  fence,  b,  at  one  side,  which  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  at  pleasure,  and  set  at  any  point  by  the  screw  C ;  d 
is  an  iron  plate  which  acts  as  the  sole  of  the  plane,  the 
cutting  edge  being  set  to  project  a  very  little  way  below  it. 
The  arms  A  A  carry  the  fence  ^,  which  is  flat  on  the 
inside  next  the  plane,  and  moulded  (merely  for  appearance 
sake)  on  the  outside.  The  arms  slide  in  two  holes  in  the 
body  of  the  plane,  and  can  be  drawn  out  at  pleasure,  and 
fixed  by  little  wooden  wedges,  e  e.  Thus,  while  in  use,  the 
fence  rubs  along  the  edge  of  the  board,  while  the  groove  is 
being  cut  at  such  distance  as  the  fence  is  fixed,  and  to  such 
a  depth  as  is  allowed  by  the  position  of  the  brass  check 
or  guide.  Complex,  therefore,  as  this  tool  appears,  it  is 
not  so  in  reality.  We  shall  presently  describe  a  chest  of 
drawers  or  cabinet  calculated  to  receive  small  tools,  or 
specimens  of  coins,  shells,  and  such  like,  in  which  another 
kind  of  grooving-plane  has  to  come  into  use,  called  (with 
its  fellow,  which  makes  a  tenon  to  fit  such  groove)  a  match 
plane.  This  is  of  extensive  use,  less  expensive  than  the 
plough,  and  on  the  whole  more  likely  to  be  useful  to  the 
young  mechanic.  Indeed,  although  the  plough  has  been 
here  described  and  illustrated,  it  is  not  by  any  means  to  be 
considered  essential,  and  its  purchase  may  well  be  deferder 


94 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


until  other  tools  of  greater  importance  lias  been  effected. 
The  side  or  sash  fillister  to  be  presently  described,  for  in- 
stance, would  be  more  useful. 

Fig.  37  is  such  a  cabinet,  with  six  drawers,  dovetailed  at 
the  corners  as  usual.  The  bottom,  however,  projects  be- 
yond the  sides,  so  that  the  latter  are  not  made  lower  than 
the  back,  as  was  the  case  with  the  table-drawer  previously 


Fig.  37. 

described.  The  top  and  sides  may  be  of  mahogany,  the 
back  and  bottom  of  pine  (stained  or  not  at  pleasure),  or  if 
cost  is  an  object,  the  whole  may  be  of  any  other  wood ;  but 
the  grooves  in  which  the  drawers  slide,  can  be  cut  more 


HO  W  TO  MAKE  A  CABINET.  95 


sharply  and  neatly  in  harder  wood  than  pine — birch,  for 
instance,  which  is  very  fit  for  the  purpose,  and  will  take  a 
good  polish.  The  outer  case  is  first  made  like  an  open 
hox.  The  dimensions  may  be  regulated  according  to  the 
intended  use,  but  generally  the  drawers  increase  in  depth 
downwards.  The  top  and  bottom  overlap  the  sides,  the 
latter  to  a  somewhat  greater  width  than  the  former.  The 
sides  can  therefore  only  be  dovetailed  to  the  back ;  the 
bottom  may  be  attached  with  screws,  and  the  top  likewise, 
but  the  holes  must  then  be  plugged  to  conceal  them.  If 
the  whole  is  of  deal,  and  to  be  painted  or  veneered,  this 
would  be  the  best  plan ;  but  if  the  top  is  of  mahogany,  it 
is  not  so  easy  to  fill  up  the  holes  above  the  heads  of  the 
screws  so  as  to  thoroughly  conceal  them.  If,  however,  you 
have  no  plough  to  cut  a  groove  to  let  the  sides  and  back  a 
little  way  into  the  top,  glue  alone  will  not  hold  sufficiently. 
In  this  case  smaller  holes  may  be  made  to  admit  2-inch 
brads  to  assist  the  glue,  such  holes  being  easily  filled  with 
putty  stained  to  imitate  mahogany. 

The  peculiarity  of  the  drawers  consists  in  their  meeting 
each  other  quite  closely  when  shut,  without  the  inter- 
mediate divisions  ordinarily  seen.  Hence  the  necessity  for 
a  different  arrangement  of  the  sliding  surfaces  as  before 
referred  to.  The  insides  of  the  case  have  jive  grooves 
ploughed  across  them,  as  seen  at  C  of  this  figure,  the 
sixth  drawer  only  being  made  as  usual  to  slide  upon  the 


96  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

bottom  of  the  case,  and  having  its  sides  made  lower  than 
the  back  for  this  purpose. 

In  the  grooves  thus  cut,  the  projecting  part  of  the 
bottom  of  the  drawers  is  made  to  fit  and  slide,  and  they 
will  run  more  smoothly  if  cut  so  that  the  grain  of  the 
wood  shall  run  across  the  bottom,  from  front  to  back,  and 
not  from  side  to  side.  The  bottom  of  the  drawer  must  no! 
come  below  the  level  of  the  front,  but  either  the  front 
should  be  rebated  to  take  one  edge  of  it,  as  seen  at  E, 
which  is  the  best  way,  or  a  slip  of  wood  should  be  glued 
along  as  at  F,  on  which  that  edge  may  rest,  and  to  which 
it  can  be  attached.  D  exhibits  this  distinctly,  as  it  is 
drawn  as  if  the  nearest  end  was  removed  to  show  the 
position  of  the  other  parts.  The  bottom,  therefore,  will  be 
let  into  the  front,  and  nailed  under  the  back  and  sides,  and 
will  project  rather  less  than  half  an  inch'  each  way,  to  fit 
the  grooves  in  which  it  is  to  slide.  Another  way  to  effect 
the  same  is  to  make  the  drawers  as  usual,  with  no  such 
projections,  and  to  nail  a  strip  to  run  in  the  grooves  in 
the  middle  of  the  side  pieces,  or,  if  preferred,  near  the 
top.  The  effect  is,  of  course,  the  same,  and  such  strips 
being  planed  up  nicely,  with  the  grain  running  length- 
wise, will  cause  the  drawers  to  work  in  and  out  very 
smoothly. 

There  is  no  neater  way  than  this  to  make  a  cabinet ;  and 
sometimes  the  whole  is  closed  with  a-  panelled  door,  for 


THE  SASH  FILLISTER.  97 


which  purpose  the  case  is  left  to  project  beyond  the 
drawers.  Unless  well  supplied  in  the  matter  of  planes, 
which  is  hardly  to  be  expected,  you  will  not  be  able  to  cut 
the  grooves  in  the  side  of  the  outer  case  in  any  way  but 
the  following,  which,  however,  will  answer  very  well  when 
the  piece  in  which  they  are  to  be  cut  is  not  above  9  inches 
or  1  foot  wide.  Mark  out  the  places,  spacing  them  with 
the  greatest  care,  and  cut  just  within  the  lines  with  a  tenon- 
saw;  then  cut  out  with  a  chisel  the  narrow  piece  which 
intervenes.  There  is  a  plane  called  a  routing-plane  used 
for  this  by  cabinetmakers  and  joiners,  but  you  may  as  well 
exercise  your  ingenuity  to  do  without  it.  If  you  have  a 
plough,  you  may  remove  the  fence,  and  let  it  follow  up  the 
saw  and  chisel,  but  it  will  be  hardly  required  if  you  use  the 
chisel  carefully. 

I  shall  now  introduce  to  your  notice  another  very  excel- 
lent plane,  called  a  side  or  sash  fillister,  for  cutting  rebates 
of  any  required  depth  and  width.  It  is  very  like  the  plough 
in  appearance,  with  a  similar  wooden  guide  or  fence  on  two 
arms  to  regulate  the  width,  and  another  of  metal,  moved 
by  a  screw  at  the  top,  to  regulate  the  depth  of  the  cut. 
Fig.  38,  A,  shows  one  side  of  this  plane,  and  B  the  other. 
The  cutting  edge  comes  down  to  the  level  of  c  d  in  fig.  A ; 
the  fence,  of  which  the  edge  is  seen  at  h,  will  draw  up  to  the 
level  of  a  d,  or  lower  to  that  of  the  edge.  This  plane, 
therefore,  is  but  a  more  complete  rebate-plane,  fitted  with 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


guides  for  depth  and  width.     It  does  its  work  very  per- 
fectly, and  is  of  extensive  use. 

I  have  given  descriptions  of  these  planes,  although  the 
young  mechanic  will  not  at  first  possess  them,  as  they  are 


Pis.  38. 

somewhat  expensive,  because  I  feel  it  as  well  to  let  him 
know  how  work  is  done  by  the  trade,  and  why  it  is  thai 
such  work  is  effected  more  rapidly  and  better  than  he  him 
self  can  do  it ;  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  far  better  that  he 
should,  for  a  long  time,  work  at  a  disadvantage,  by  using 


THE  MATCH-PLANE.  99 


few  tools,  and  those  of  the  simplest  construction,  before 
taking  in  hand  others  which  cost  a  good  deal  of  money, 
which  might  often  be  better  spent.  A  look  back  over  these 
pages  will  show  that  with  a  long  (or  jack)  plane,  a  smooth- 
ing-plane  and  a  rebate-plane,  all  the  work  previously 
alluded  to  can  be  done.  As,  however,  I  am  writing  upon 
the  subject  of  planes,  I  may  as  well  mention  two  more — 
match-planes  and  beading-planes — to  which  may  be  added 
those  for  moulding,  being  an  extension  only  of  the  last 
named.  Match-planes  are  always  in  pairs.  Their  use  is 
to  cut,  the  one  a  groove,  Fig.  39,  A,  the  other  a  tenon  or 
tongue,  or  feather,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  as  Fig.  39,  B, 
down  the  long  sides  (with  the  grain)  of  boards  that  are  to 
be  joined  lengthwise  (Fig.  39).  If  the  plough  is  used,  a 
groove  is  cut  in  both  pieces,  and  a  slip  of  board  planed  up 


Fig.  39. 


to  fit  them ;  either  method  will  answer  equally  well. 
When  boards  joined  thus  shrink,  the  tongue  or  slip  fills  up 
space. 

There  is  no  necessity  for  illustrating  the  planes  used  for 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC 


beading  and  moulding  after  the  description  already  given 
of  others.  The  irons,  instead  of  being  flat,  are  filed  into 
grooves  and  hollows  of  the  required  pattern,  and  of  course 
transfer  their  own  form  to  the  wood  upon  which  they  are 
used.  They  are  held  on  the  slope  of  the  moulding  to  be 
cut.  When  blunt,  they  have  to  be  sharpened  with  slips  of 
oilstone,  which  can  be  had  for  the  purpose,  of  square  and 
round  section ;  sometimes  they  are  sufficiently  soft  to  be 
filed  into  shape,  but  a  keen  edge  cannot  thus  be  obtained. 
Mouldings,  however,  are  generally  finished  off  with  fine 
sandpaper.  They  are  always  planed  lengthwise  of  the 
grain  in  long  strips,  and  are  cut  to  the  required  lengths 
(generally  with  mitres).  When  very  broad,  they  are  made 
np  of  several  narrower  ones,  glued  side  by  side.  The 
young  mechanic  had  better  get  them  cut  for  him  by  some 
friendly  carpenter,  as  it  is  hardly  worth  his  while  to 
buy  planes  for  which  he  will  have  comparatively  little 
use. 

I  shall  conclude  these  papers  on  carpentry  by  describing 
the  method  of  making  such  a  door  as  would  suit  the  cabinet 
already  described,  especially  as  it  will  explain  the  way  in 
which  all  panelling  is  done,  whether  for  doors,  shutters,  or 
other  similar  articles.  Panelling  is  indeed  of  very  general 
application  in  every  household,  and  it  is  well  worth  while 
even  for  the  young  mechanic  to  learn  how  it  is  accom- 
plished. It  is  absolutely  necessary,  however,  that  he 


PANELLING. 


should  be  possessed  either  of  a  plough  or  match-planes  for 
routing  out  the  grooves  in  which  the  panels  slide. 

Nearly  all  panels  have  a  beading  or  a  moulding  running 
round  them  as  a  finish. 

Fig.  40  illustrates  the  method  of  panelling.  A,  B,  C  are 
the  styles,  D,  E,  F,  Gr  the  rails.  The  mortices  and  tenons 


Fig.  40. 

are  cut  as  usual.  The  inside  edges  of  C,  B,  D,  G  are  then 
grooved  with  the  plough,  and  both  edges  of  the  other 
pieces.  The  panels  are  carefully  squared  up,  and  then 
bevelled  off  at  the  edges  so  as  to  fit  the  grooves.  To  put 
such  a  door  together,  A,  D,  G,  E,  and  F  would  be  first 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


arranged,  then  the  panels  slid  in  from  the  outside,  and 
afterwards  the  styles  B  and  C  put  in  place.  The  part 
beyond  the  outer  mortices  in  the  latter  pieces,  which  are 
left  for  safety  in  cutting  these  mortices,  and  to  prevent 
splitting  when  D  and  G  are  driven  home,  are  not  cut  off 
until  the  glue  is  dry.  The  process  is  simple,  but  it  requires 
great  care,  both  in  setting  out  the  various  measurements, 
and  in  squaring  up  the  different  pieces  composing  the 
whole.  After  the  whole  is  dry,  strips  of  moulding,  cut  to 
mitre-joints  at  the  corners,  are  nailed  on  with  brads  round 
the  panels  to  give  the  whole  a  finished  appearance. 

In  the  above  examples,  in  which  I  have  gone  from  the 
more  simple  to  the  more  complicated,  are  comprised  the 
main  principles  of  the  art  of  carpentry.  At  any  rate,  when 
the  young  mechanic  can  do  as  mucht  he  will  be  able  to 
accomplish  a  great  deal  more. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

HERE  are  a  number  of  useful  and  ornamental 
articles  which  cannot  be  made  with  the  carpen- 
ter's tools  alone,  but  which  need  a  lathe  for  their 
construction.  Wooden  boxes  of  circular  section, 
wooden  and  metal  wheels  and  pulleys,  ornamental  chair  and 
table  legs,  and  a  countless  number  of  similar  articles,  all 
depend  upon  the  skill  of  the  turner.  Models  too  of  engines 
and  machinery  of  all  sizes  and  shapes,  bring  the  lathe  into 
constant  requisition. 

No  one  can  say  to  whom  this  machine  is  to  be  attributed. 
Probably  it  has  been  developed  by  slow  and  imperceptible 
steps,  from  the  potter's  wheel  to  its  present  elaborate  and 
perfect  form.  As  for  the  part  that  old  Daedalus  had  in  it, 
I  believe  he  had  just  as  much  to  do  with  it  as  he  had  with 
the  saw,  which  he  is  said  to  have  invented  from  seeing  the 
backbone  of  a  fish.  Now,  the  backbone  of  a  fish  is  not  a 


io4  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

bit  like  a  saw,  but  the  jaw  of  a  shark  is,  and  very  quickly 
it  amputates  legs,  arms,  and  heads,  when  unfortunately 
the  chance  is  given  to  it.  We  need  not,  however,  stay  to 
discuss  this  unimportant  point ;  we  will  leave  it  to  the 
researches  of  the  Antediluvian  Society,  or  Noahican  Breth- 
ren, or  any  other  known  or  unknown  learned  body,  and 
proceed  to  consider  the  lathe  as  it  is  now  generally  con- 
structed— the  ambition  of  boys,  the  delight  of  adult 
possessors,  and,  to  the  writer,  "  gem  of  gems  !  " 

At  the  very  time  1  write,  I  am  engaged  in  fitting  up  two 
lathes ;  one  of  which  is  for  just  such  a  "  young  mechanic  * 
as  this  book  is  intended  to  instruct.  The  bed  will  be  ol 
dry  hard  beech,  the  fly-wheel  of  iron  turned  up  with  five 
grooves  or  speeds,  as  they  are  called.  The  heads,  which  are 
the  only  really  important  part,  are  to  be  made  by  a  well- 
known  London  maker,  whose  work  is  sure  to  be  the  best 
possible  at  the  price  afforded.  Nevertheless,  this  lathe  will 
».ost  several  pounds,  although  it  is  to  be  fitted  for  hand- 
turning  only,  and  it  is  possible  in  London  to  find  a  much 
cheaper  (not  better)  article. 

When  I  was  myself  a  (l  young  mechanic,"  so  many  years 
ago  that  I  find  I  do  not  quite  like  to  count  them,  I  had  a 
lathe  at  £2,  rather  shaky,  wooden  fly-wheel,  wooden  head — 
not  at  all  the  thing  to  recommend.  Then  I  had  another 
made  by  a  gunsmith — all  iron — for  it  was  what  is  called 
a  triangle-bar  lathe ;  the  bed  being  a  bar  of  triangular 


THE  TURNING-LATHE.  105 

eection,  on  which  the  heads  or  poppits  slid,  and  also  the 
rest.  I  think  now  it  was  not  a  bad  lathe  ;  but  I  am  afraid 
the  work  I  did  on  it  was  scarcely  first-class ;  and  I  sold  the 
machine  one  fine  day  under  the  impression  that  if  I  had  a 
better  1  should  do  better  work.  This,  however,  proved  a 
terrible  fallacy ;  so  I  set  myself  upon  high  as  a  warning  to 
young  mechanics,  who  always  fancy  that  their  clumsy,  bad 
work  is  due  to  some  fault  in  their  tools,  whereas,  after  all, 
it  is  generally  their  own. 

Well,  I  had  a  succession  of  lathes,  after  that  triangle-bar 
one  had  passed  into  oblivion,  by  various  makers ;  some 
good,  some  indifferent,  some  for  heavy,  and  some  for  light 
work ;  and  I  fancy  I  am  now  fairly  able  to  give  an  opinion 
upon  the  merits  or  demerits  of  any  particular  lathe  which 
may  come  under  my  notice. 

I  was  going  to  write  a  piece  of  advice,  "  Don't  give  too 
much  for  a  lathe"  when  I  remembered  that  I  was  scrib- 
bling for  the  edification  first  of  boys ;  and  experience  tells  me 
the  caution  is  by  no  means  generally  necessary,  few  boys' 
pockets  being  very  heavily  lined,  owing  to  the  constant  claims 
upon  them  for  peg-tops,  knives,  string,  and  etceteras — not 
to  say  lollipops  and  bulls'  eyes,  and  similar  unwholesome 
luxuries. 

I  suppose,  however,  I  must  give  some  idea  of  cost,  if 
only  as  a  partial  guide ;  but  all  depends  upon  the  special 
object  for  which  the  lathe  is  to  be  used.  If  for  models,  for 


106  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

instance,  it  would  not  be  so  expensive  as  if  it  was  desired 
for  elaborate  ornamental  work  in  wood  or  ivory,  when  the 
young  mechanic  has  grown  whiskers,  and  become  an  adult 
enthusiast  at  this  delightful  recreation.  For  there  are  all 
kinds  of  lathes  to  be  had ;  some  that  will  answer  well  for 
beginners,  and  for  rough  work  in  after  years ;  some  beauti- 
fully finished,  intended  to  be  used  first  for  simple  hand- 
turning,  but  which  are  of  best  construction,  and  therefore 
worth  adding  to  from  time  to  time ;  and  if  carefully  used, 
will  descend  in  good  order  from  father  to  son.  Then  there 
are  lathes  for  heavier  work,  and  for  screw  cutting  and 
engine  making,  fit  for  engineers ;  and  others  of  minute 
size  and  exquisite  finish,  adapted  to  the  special  require- 
ments of  watch  and  clock  makers — lathes  you  could  put 
in  your  waistcoat  pocket. 

Now,  if  I  were  sure  you  would  be  very,  very  careful,.I 
should  like  to  recommend  a  good  lathe,  worth  adding  to  as 
you  grew  more  and  more  experienced ;  but  these,  even  of 
simplest  make,  are  costly,  and  not  within  reach  of  half  my 
readers.  I  shall  therefore  say — get  a  good,  plain,  strong 
tool  that  will  bear  a  little  rough  usage,  and  which  will  cost 
you  as  little  as  it  is  possible  to  make  them  for  :  and  if  you 
find,  after  a  year  or  two,  that  you  are  becoming  a  proficient, 
and  therefore  not  so  likely  to  damage  a  good  lathe,  you  can 
set  this,  your  first,  on  one  side,  and  let  it  become  your  hack 
to  do  any  odd  jobs,  and  buy  yourself  both  a  larger  and  a 


THE  TURNING-LATHE.  107 


better  one.  I  know  this  will  be  a  double  outlay ;  but  ex- 
perience tells  me  it  will  be  the  best  way  and  the  cheapest 
in  the  long  run.  Perhaps  you  may  like  to  go  on  as  you 
are.  Your  small  lathe  may  prove  an  accurate  one,  and 
quite  sufficient  for  your  need.  In  such  case,  of  course,  a 
new  one  will  not  be  required  at  all.  But  if  it  should  be 
otherwise,  and  circumstances  allow  you  to  improve  upon 
it,  you  may  rest  assured  your  old  friend  will  be  ever  a 
handy  assistant,  and  save  your  better  lathe  very  consider- 
ably in  many  ways. 

You  can  get  a  lathe  for  about  $20  to  $25,  with  iron 
bed  complete ;  and  I  really  think  it  impossible  to  obtain  a 
cheaper  one.  Of  course  it  will  be  small,  and  of  the  plainest 
possible  construction.  It  will,  nevertheless,  answer  for 
light  work  in  wood  and  metal,  being  designed  to  assist  the 
young  mechanic  in  making  model  engines  and  similar 
curiosities.  From  this  you  may  go,  pound  by  pound,  to 
good,  serviceable  tools ;  and  these  to  a  £300  lathe  for  rose 
engine-work,  and  elaborate  ornamentation  in  ivory  and 
other  costly  materials.  Most  probably  I  shall  be  able  to 
give  you  a  catalogue  or  two  at  the  end  of  this  book,  pub- 
lished by  makers  of  such  lathes,  and  you  can  then  judge  of 
the  probable  cost  of  your  workshop.  The  drawing  of  the 
lathe  (Fig.  41)  will  be  readily  understood  even  by  those 
boys  who  have  had  no  opportunity  of  seeing  any  work  oi 
this  kind.  There  are,  however,  few  towns  or  villages  in 


io8 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


which  a  lathe  does  not  exist,  and  may  not  be  examined  by 
any  boy  who  desires  to  learn  its  construction  and  use.     Tt  9 


Fig.  41. 

object  is  to  give  rotary  movement  to  any  material  it  i§ 
desired  to  form  into  a  circular  or  cylindrical  shape. 

Motion  being  given  to  the  fly-wheel  by  means  of  tha 


THE  TURNING-LATHE.  109 

treadle  and  crank,  is  communicated  to  the  pulley  upon 
the  mandrel.  Upon  the  screw  of  this  mandrel,  B,  the  work 
is  fixed ;  being  usually  held  in  a  chuck  suited  to  its  par- 
ticular form,  but  sometimes  it  is  screwed  directly  upon  the 
mandrel.  The  rest,  C,  is  then  fixed  near  it,  and  the  tool  is 
feupported  thereon  and  held  firmly  while  the  work  revolves 
against  it.  All  this  is  easy  to  understand — it  is  not  so  easy 
to  carry  it  into  practice.  Attention  to  the  following  direc- 
tions will  enable  the  young  mechanic  to  become  a  good 
turner  in  course  of  time ;  but  the  art  cannot  be  practically 
learned  in  a  day,  and  it  needs  experience  and  considerable 
practice  to  become  anything  like  a  proficient. 

If  the  construction  of  the  lathe  itself  is  understood,  the 
first  consideration  is  what  tools  and  chucks  are  necessary. 
I  shall  speak  of  the  latter  first,  as  little  or  nothing  can  be 
done  without  them.  First  comes  the  prong-chuck,  for  soft 
wood  (Fig.  41,  A).  This,  like  all  others,  is  made  to  screw 
upon  the  mandrel.  Its  use  is  to  hold  one  end  of  any  piece 
of  wood  while  the  other  is  supported  by  the  point,  E,  of  the 
poppit,  H,  which  poppit  can  be  moved  at  pleasure  along 
the  lathe-bed,  and  fixed  at  any  given  place  by  a  hand-nut 
below.  The  point  itself  can  be  advanced  or  drawn  back  by 
turning  the  handle,  K.  A  piece  of  wood  thus  mounted 
must  of  necessity  revolve  with  the  mandrel,  because, 
although  it  can  and  will  turn  round  upon  the  point  of  the 
back  poppit,  it  cannot  do  so  upon  the  fork  or  prong,  which 


no  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

enters  and  holds  it  securely.  This  chuok,  or  one  of  the 
same  nature,  is  always  used  for  cylinders  of  soft  wood, 
which  can  be  supported  at  both  ends,  such  as  tool-handles, 
chair-legs,  and  other  work  not  requiring  to  be  hollowed 
ont. 

It  sometimes  happens,  however,  especially  if  the  work  ia 
at  all  rough,  or  considerably  out  of  truth,  that  the  piece 
slips  round  upon  the  fork  or  prong,  especially  if  it  does 
not  enter  deeply  enough;  and  in  addition,  tool-handles  and 
round  rulers,  and  many  articles  that  have  to  be  similarly 
supported  at  both  ends,  are  made  of  hard  wood,  into  which 
this  prong  will  not  readily  enter. 

In  such  cases,  and  indeed  as  a  general  substitute  for  the 
first,  a  chuck  called  a  "  cross-chuck  "  is  to  be  used  (Fig. 
41,  L,  M).  The  centre  of  the  little  cross  (which  is  of  steel, 
and  fits  into  the  same  square  or  round  hole  in  the  socket 
which  carries  the  prong,  and  which  is  also  used  to  hold 
drills,  pieces  of  iron  rod  which  are  to  be  turned,  and  other 
articles)  is  made  to  revolve  in  the  precise  axial  line  of  the 
mandrel,  or  to  run  true  with  it,  as  it  is  called.  The  arms 
of  the  cross  are  to  be  imbedded  in  the  work,  which  is  best 
effected  by  making  in  the  latter  two  saw-cuts  at  right 
angles  with  each  other  (Fig.  41,  N),  which  represents  a 
piece  ready  for  mounting. 

The  next  chuck  is  equally  necessary  (Fig.  41,  0).  It 
is  a  taper  screw  of  steel,  fixed  in  a  socket  which  can  be 


THE  TURNING-LATHE. 


attached  to  the  mandrel.  Two  sizes  of  this  chuck  would  be 
useful  for  a  large  lathe,  but  for  such  a  one  as  will  probably 
be  purchased  by  the  young  amateur,  one  only,  with  a  screw 
of  medium  size,  will  suffice.  The  use  of  this  chuck  is  to 
hold  pieces  which  only  require  to  be  supported  at  one  end. 
80  that  a  tool  can  be  used  to  work  upon  the  other,  either  to 
mould  it  into  the  required  form,  or  to  hollow  it  out  for  a 
box  or  bowl.  Of  course  you  might  screw  such  work  on  the 
mandrel-nose  itself,  but  it  would  make  a  very  large  hole  in 
the  end,  whereas  this  taper  screw  only  requires  a  moder- 
ately sized  gimlet-hole.  It  is  therefore  a  much  more  con- 
venient way  of  attaching  work  to  the  mandrel,  and  is  of 
extensive  use. 

The  cup-chuck  is  the  last  required.  It  is  sketched  at  P, 
and  is  sometimes  of  iron,  but  generally  of  brass.  There 
are  several  sizes  made  and  sold  with  lathes,  but  you  need 
not  have  at  most  more  than  one  or  two,  as  I  shall  show  you 
how  to  make  wooden  ones,  which  answer  as  well,  if  not 
better.  The  flat  plates,  R,  R2.  can  scarcely  be  called 
chucks,  but  they  generally  come  into  the  list  of  such.  The 
latter  has  five  projecting  points,  which,  sticking  into  such 
a. thing  as  a  flat-board  (like  a  bread-platter,  or  round 
pulley),  hold  it  sufficiently  firm  when  the  back  centre  is 
brought  up  against  the  other  side  of  the  piece,  to  allow  of 
its  being  turned.  The  other  is  merely  a  flat  plate  with 
holes  in  it,  through  which  screws  can  be  passed  froir 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


behind  into  any  odd  bit  of  wood  of  2  or  3  inches  in  thick- 
ness, whereby  a  chuck  can  be  quickly  made  to  suit  any 
required  purpose.  Two  or  three  of  these  would  be  con- 
venient, one  of  which  should  be  nearly  as  large  as  the  lathe 
will  carry ;  and  in  this  one  a  great  many  holes  and  slots 
should  be  made.  This  is  called  a  face-plate,  and,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  ordinary  screws,  whereby  pieces  of  wood  are 
attached  to  it,  it  is  fitted  with  clamps  and  bolts  of  various 
forms,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  securely  upon  its  face  all 
kinds  of  flat  works  in  wood  or  metal, — such  as  cog-wheels, 
which  have  to  be  bored  out  and  faced.  The  young  model- 
maker  will  find  a  face-plate  of  great  service.  The  larger 
one  should  be  of  iron,  as  it  will  be  cheaper  than  brass. 

We  now  pass  on  to  chucks  for  metal  turning.  These  are 
of  various  shapes.  First  in  order  comes  the  centre  chuck 
and  dog,  for  holding  rods  of  iron  which  can  be  sup- 
ported at  both  ends.  The  commonest  form  is  represented 
in  Fig.  41,  S,  T.  S  is  such  a  face-plate  almost  as  I  have 
described,  but  it  has  a  pin  projecting  from  it,  and  also  a 
steel  centre-point.  The  latter  is  often  made  to  screw  out 
and  in,  which  is  the  best  plan.  The  pin  can  be  slid  to  any 
point  in  the  face-plate,  and  clamped  by  a  nut  at  the  back. 
T  is  called  a  dog,  and  of  these  two  at  least  will  be  re- 
quired, if  the  young  mechanic  intends  to  work  in  metal. 

The  way  of  using  these  is  shown  at  T2.  The  rod  of  iron 
has  a  hole  drilled  at  each  end,  as  nearly  in  the  centre  w 


THE  TURNING-LATHE. 


possible.  It  is  first  indented  with  a  punch,  then  a  drill  is 
put  into  the  drill  chuck,  and  one  end  of  the  rod  brought 
against  it  as  it  revolves,  while  the  back  poppit  centre-point 
is  screwed  against  the  indentation  at  the  other  end.  A 
little  oil  is  applied  to  the  drill  to  assist  its  working,  and  the 
rod  itself  is  prevented  from  turning  round  either  by  grasp- 
ing it  with  the  hand  or  screwing  a  hand-vice  upon  it,  so 
that  this  comes  against  the  bed  or  the  rest ;  or  it  can  be 
held  in  the  hand,  which  has  one  advantage,  namely,  that 
the  operator  can  feel  exactly  what  is  the  resistance  caused 
by  the  drill,  and  can  regulate  the  pressure  accordingly.  The 
screw  of  the  poppit  is,  of  course,  to  be  very  slowly  and 
steadily  advanced  during  the  process.  All  drilling  in  the 
lathe  is  done  in  this  way,  but  in  boring  out  long  holes,  the 
action  is  often  reversed,  the  work  being  kept  in  motion 
while  the  tool  is  advanced,  without  being  allowed  to  revolve. 
You  need  not  bore  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  for 
light  work,  but  must  do  the  same  at  each  end  of  the  rod. 
The  holes  thus  made  should  be  of  such  a  size  as  not  to  let 
the  extreme  end  of  the  back  centre-point  touch  the  bottom, 
or  it  will  soon  be  worn  down  and  blunted ; — remember  this 
in  all  future  work. 

Supposing  the  rod  to  be  thus  bored  at  each  end,  place 
the  centre-chuck  upon  the  mandrel,  instead  of  the  drill- 
chuck,  and  mount  the  bar  between  this  and  the  point  of  the 
back-centre.  Thus  placed,  it  will  be  accurately  supported , 


ii4  THE   YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

but  if  the  lathe  is  put  in  motion,  it  will  not  turn  round 
T^ow  come  into  use  the  little  dogs.  Remove  the  bar, 
and  choosing  a  dog  of  which  the  open  part  is  tolerably 
near  the  size  of  it,  slip  it  over  the  end  about  half  an  inch, 
and  there  fix  it  by  tightening  the  little  screw,  which,  you 
observe,  will  drive  the  bar  as  far  as  possible  towards  the 
smaller  part  of  the  opening,  and  when  it  can  go  no  farther, 
will  secure  it  as  in  a  vice.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  file  a  slight 
fiat  upon  the  bar,  just  where  the  screw  of  the  carrier  will 
come.  Now  replace  the  bar,  and  when  the  lathe  is  put  in 
motion,  the  tail  of  the  carrier  should  come  against  the 
projecting  pin  in  the  face  of  the  face-plate,  which  will 
compel  the  iron  to  go  round  with  it.  This  is  the  way  all 
bars  of  metal  are  mounted.  I  shall  not  tell  you  yet  how 
they  are  to  be  turned,  because  this  would  interfere  with 
the  order  of  my  description. 

To  mount  in  the  lathe  such  pieces  as  cylinders  of  engines, 
which  require  to  be  bored,  or  any  other  objects  which  have 
to  be  turned  on  one  or  both  faces,  the  young  mechanic 
must  make  wooden  chucks,  and  bore  them  out  exactly  to 
fit  the  article  and  hold  it  securely.  There  are  metal  chucks 
expressly  made  to  take  all  work  of  this  kind,  and  which 
are  so  contrived  that  they  will  also  hold  it  truly  central , 
but  they  are  costly,  and  need  not  be  obtained  with  the  first 
lathe — at  any  rate,  not  until  absolutely  required,  and  that 
will  be,  I  know,  a  long  time  hence  ;  ay.  a  very  long  time 


TURNING  TOOLS.  115 

for  many  good  workmen  have  never  even  seen,  much  less 
possessed  one  of  them.     Perhaps  I  may  draw  and  explain 
one  in  a  future  page,  as  well  as  some  other  chucks,  which 
it  is  not  necessary  tc  notice  here. 
The  chucks  then  absolutely  necessary  are  these — 

1.  SQUARE  HOLE  CHUCK,  which  will  take  the  prong,  the  cross,  the  drills,  and 

short  bits  of  iron  to  be  turned. 

2.  THE  TAPER  SCREW. 

8.  FLANGE  or  FACE  CHUCKS,  one  with  five  points,  and  two  with  holes  for 
screws,  also  one  larger  for  a  face-plate. 

4.  Two  or  three  CUP-CHUCKS  (I  can,  however,  scarcely  call  these  absolutely 
necessary). 

&  CHUCK  BOB  IRON,  viz.,  face-plate  with  centre-point,  and  two  dogs  to 
take  iron  from  1  inch  diameter  down  to  quarter-inch.  These  should 
have  pear-shaped  openings,  not  round ;  any  blacksmith  can  make  them, 
but  somehow  they  do  such  work  generally  in  a  clumsy  fashion ;  and 
they  cost  but  85  to  75  cents,  according  to  size,  beautifully  made  with 
turned  screws. 


Now  as  to  tools.  Their  name  is  legion — tools  for  iron, 
brass,  ivory,  hard  and  soft  wood ;  and  many  an  odd  shilling 
Will  be  well  laid  out  from  time  to  time  in  adding  to  the 
stock.  Happily  those  most  needed  are  not  costly — about 
$3  a  dozen  without  handles,  which  latter  may  be  had  at 
10  cents  each  and  upwards,  according  to  the  material  and 
finish,  all  with  iron  or  brass  ferules,  so  necessary  to  pre- 
vent splitting.  You  may  buy  your  first  few  simple  tools 
handled,  but  after  you  have  these  you  can  turn  as  many 
handles  as  you  like,  and  you  can  buy  ferules  of  all  sizes  at 
any  regular  tool-shop. 


Ii6  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

I  may  as  well  tell  you  that  in  a  great  many  countrj 
towns  you  will  be  unable  to  obtain  turning  tools  except 
gouges  and  chisels,  so  that  when  you  buy  your  lathe  in 
London,  as  you  will  find  the  best  plan  (or  in  Manchester, 
Birmingham,  or  other  manufacturing  town,  if  nearer  to 
you),  you  must  lay  in  a  little  stock  of  tools  at  the  same 
time,  and  take  future  opportunities  of  getting  more.  In 
regular  tool-shops  you  will  have  them  laid  before  you  by 
dozens  of  every  conceivable  shape  and  size,  so  that  your 
great  difficulty  would  be  what  to  pick  out  if  it  were  not  for 
some  such  directions  as  I  am  now  about  to  give  you. 

First,  you  will  want  gouges  and  chisels.  Begin  with  two 
sizes  of  each — one  of  half  an  inch,  the  other  of  1  inch  in 
width.  These  are  to  be  mounted  in  long  handles. 

Now,  with  these  alone  you  can  do  all  the  plain  work  in 
soft  wood  which  does  not  require  to  be  hollowed  out,  tool- 
handles,  chair-legs,  legs  of  towel-horses,  round  rulers,  and 
all  sorts  of  things,  and  to  a  certain  extent  you  can  turn  out 
the  insides  of  wooden  chucks,  bowls,  and  boxes,  but  not 
very  easily  with  these  alone.  Hence  you  must  add  some 
of  those  shown  in  Fig.  42.  These  I  shall  endeavour  to 
assort  as  follows  : — 

A  to  F  are  for  hollowing  out  hard  woods  ;  G  and  H  are 
hook-tools  (very  difficult  to  use)  for  hollowing  out  soft 
wood  boxes  and  bowls. 

I  and  K  show  the  edge  and  side  of  a  parting  tool  for 


TURNING  TOOLS. 


n8  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

catting  off  the  ends  of  cylindrical  pieces,  separating  the 
turned  from  the  unturned  parts,  and  for  all  similar  work. 
[A  tenon-saw  held  still  against  a  piece  revolving  in  the 
lathe  will  often  serve  to  cut  it  in  two,  but  parting  tools 
must  also  be  had,  and  two  are  better  than  one,  as  a  thick 
one  should  be  kept  for  common  woods,  and  a  thin  one 
for  ivory  and  precious  materials ;  sometimes  one  with  a 
notched  edge  is  used  for  cutting  off  soft  wood.] 

L  to  0  are  for  turning  iron  and  steel.  The  first  is  a 
graver,  of  which  all  sizes  are  made  ;  one  of  a  quarter  inch 
width  on  either  face  is  large  enough.  It  is  a  square  bar  of 
steel  ground  off  cornerwise  so  as  to  form  a  lozenge-shaped 
face.  This  is  an  essential  tool  for  iron,  and  will  do  all 
sorts  of  work. 

M  is  a  hook  or  heel  tool,  made  sometimes  with  a  flat 
edge  and  sometimes  with  a  rounded  one,  the  latter  being 
most  useful.  It  is  a  very  powerful  tool,  much  used  by 
some,  especially  for  heavy  work — I  don't  think  you  need 
get  one  at  present.  If  I  am  able  to  teach  you  to  use  a 
graver  it  will  do  almost  as  much  work,  and  is  a  neater  tool. 
If  you  use  a  tool  of  the  nature  of  heel-tools  at  all,  I  think, 
on  the  whole,  the  nail-head  tool,  N,  either  round  or  square,  is 
the  best.  It  is  at  all  events  handy  for  roughing  down  work, 
and  when  it  is  reduced  nearly  to  the  size  required,  and  is 
partly  smoothed,  the  graver  will  finish  it. 

0  is  an  inside  tool  for  hollowing  out  iron.     There  are 


TURNING  TOOLS.  119 


different  shapes  of  this  used,  each  turner  giving  the  prefer- 
ence to  some  particular  pattern  to  which  he  has  habituated 
himself.  None  of  these  tools  for  metal  have  sharp  edges— 
at  least  they  would  not  appear  so  to  an  ordinary  observer. 
The  angle  of  the  edge  is  60°  to  80°,  or  even  90°,  which  is,  as 
you  know,  a  right  angle,  and  is  that  most  generally  used 
for  the  cutting  edges  of  tools  intended  for  brass,  as  U,  Y, 
W,  of  which  V  is  a  most  useful  pattern.  Those  for  hard 
wood  have  edges  a  little  more  keen,  but  after  all  they 
scrape  rather  than  cut ;  the  only  tools  for  wood  with  keen 
edges  being  the  gouge  and  chisel. 

P  are  callipers  for  measuring  the  outside  of  work  of  all 
kinds.  Q  and  R  are  the  same,  arranged  for  in  and  outside 
work.  The  first  is  an  ordinary  pair  closed  until  the  ends 
have  crossed,  which  they  will  all  do ;  bat  if  the  inside  of 
hollow  work  to  be  gauged  is  small,  they  will  not  enter  it. 
In  this  case  none  are  so  generally  useful  as  the  in-and-out 
callipers,  R,  for  when  accurately  made  (and  if  not  you  can 
easily  correct  them  with  a  small  file),  the  one  end  will 
measure  the  external  diameter  of  work,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  other  end  will  be  found  to  have  its  points  separated 
to  such  a  distance,  that  if  you  were  to  turn  a  box  or  chuck 
to  this  inside  measure,  the  cylinder  first  turned  will  exactly 
fit  it.  Thus  if  you  turn  a  box-cover,  and  take  the  size  of 
it  with  the  straight  end  of  the  callipers,  and  then  turn 
down  the  rim  of  the  box  until  it  is  just  the  size  indicated 


120  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

by  the  curved  ends,  the  one  will  exactly  fit  the  other.  In 
turning  a  piston  to  fit  the  cylinder  of  an  engine,  you  would 
work  with  this  useful  tool. 

S  is  the  turner's  square.  The  blade  slides  stiffly  and  accu- 
rately  in  a  slot  in  the  brass,  being  kept  by  a  spring  at  one  sidft 
from  working  loose.  This  square'is  used  to  gauge  the  depth 
of  boxes  and  other  works  which  are  to  be  turned  to  an  exact 
size,  and  it  also  serves  to  test  the  squareness  of  many  kinds 
of  work.  Suppose,  for  instance,  you  had  turned  a  box,  you 
would  put  the  blade  of  this  tool  against  the  bottom  and 
press  upon  it  till  the  brass  rested  across  the  rim,  touching 
it  in  two  opposite  places.  Now  possibly  the  inside  may  be 
smaller  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top.  Test  it  by  bringing 
the  steel  blade  edgewise  against  it.  You  will  see  whether 
the  brass  still  touches  in  two  places  across  the  mouth  of 
the  box.  The  squareness  of  the  outside  with  the  top  or 
bottom  can  be  tested  in  a  similar  way.  We  shall  have 
occasion  to  recur  to  this  when  we  come  to  boring  and  fit- 
ting engine  cylinders. 

S2  is  another  small  square,  which  is  often  serviceable 
where  the  carpenter's  square  cannot  be  used.  If  you  intend 
to  make  models,  you  will  want  both  of  these ;  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  quite  possible  to  make  the  latter  of  iron,  or  even 
thick  tin,  if  you  have  the  former,  as  an  accurate  guide  to 
work  by. 

T  represents  a  pair  of  spring-compasses  or  callipers. 


TVMN1NG  TOOLS.  121 

They  are  used  to  set  off  distances,  and  have  the  advantage 
of  not  being  liable  to  shift  their  position  when  once  they 
are  set  to  any  required  width.  You  will  require  a  pair  of 
compasses  of  some  sort,  and  if  not  already  provided,  these 
are  the  best  you  can  have. 

There  are  many  other  tools,  which,  though  not  absolutely 
turning  tools,  are  more  or  less  used  in  connection  with  the 
lathe,  but  these  need  not  now  be  further  alluded  to,  and  I 
shall  go  on  to  describe  as  clearly  as  possible  the  method  of 
working  at  the  lathe  with  hand-tools,  commencing  with  the 
operation  of  turning  soft  wood  with  the  gouge  and  chisel : 
but  I  must  first  give  a  short  chapter  upon  the  nature  of 
woods  used. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

S  different  materials  require  somewhat  different 
management,  and  even  in  the  matter  of  wood 
alone  this  rule  holds  good,  it  may  be  as  well 
to  have  some  idea  of  what  is  meant  by  hard 
and  soft  wood. 

The  young  mechanic  has  most  likely  hitherto  considered 
all  wood  under  one  head ;  but  there  is  a  vast  difference, 
nevertheless,  in  the  internal  structure,  even  of  such  kinds 
as  grow  in  England;  and  the  woods  of  foreign  countries 
differ  again  from  these,  some  being  of  such  close  texture 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  work  them  with  ordinary 
tools,  and  some  (such  as  the  palm)  being  little  else  than 
gigantic  ferns,  and  in  structure  like  that  much-dreaded 
implement  of  flagellation — the  schoolmaster's  cane. 

In  England  the  hardest  wood  found  is  that  of  the  box- 
tree,  the  chief  place  of  which  is  in  Surrey,  at  Box  Hill ;  it 


MATERIALS  FOR  TURNING.  123 

is,  nevertheless,  found  scattered  here  and  there  in  all  parts 
of  the  country,  but  not  generally  of  a  size  greater  than  3 
inches  in  diameter.  It  is  of  very  slow  growth,  and  our  own 
country  would  not  nearly  satisfy  the  demand  made  for  it 
by  various  trades.  Hence  a  large  quantity  of  box,  of  larger 
growth,  and  generally  of  harder  and  better  quality,  is  im- 
ported every  year  from  Turkey,  to  be  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  blocks  for  engravers,  who  alone  require  many 
tons  weight  annually,  and  for  carpenters'  rules,  mallets, 
turned  boxes,  and  tool-handles ;  to  which  I  may  add  the 
important  item  of  peg-tops.  I  fear  some  of  my  readers 
may  think  I  should  have  placed  these  first  on  the  list  f 
Opinions,  however,  I  imagine,  differ  in  this  particular,  a* 
in  most  others,  and  upon  all  subjects. 

The  grain  of  boxwood  is  so  close  and  even  that  it  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  turning  materials  we  possess.  It 
takes  excellent  screw-threads,  provided  they  are  not  too 
fine ;  is  a  very  general  material  for  boxes  of  all  kinds,  and 
also  for  chucks,  although  there  is  really  no  reason  why  it 
should  be  wasted  in  so  applying  it,  when  other  woods  of 
less  value  make  such  efficient  substitutes.  Probably  its 
use  for  this  purpose  arose  from  the  facility  with  which  a 
screw  can  be  cut  in  it  to  fit  that  on  the  mandrel,  and  that 
it  is  so  hard  as  not  to  allow  the  collar  beyond  the  screw  to 
make  much  impression  upon  it.  In  consequence,  when  it 
is  well  fitted,  such  a  chuck  can  be  screwed  on  many  times 


i24  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

exactly  to  the  same  point,  and  will  continue  to  run  true. 
But  I  myrelf  have  found  that  if  the  mandrel-screw  is  not 
very  coarse,  the  threads  cut  in  the  inside  of  the  chuck  are 
apt  to  break  off. 

Somewhat  similar  in  texture,  though  by  no  means 
generally  used,  is  the  wood  of  the  ELDER,  which  is  quite 
different,  be  it  observed,  from  the  ALDER,  although  I  often 
hear  the  names  confounded  together.  The  wood  I  allude 
to  is  that  of  the  tree  which  bears  umbels  of  sweet,  white 
blossoms,  which  give  place  to  those  jet-black  berries  we 
find  upon  them  late  in  summer,  and  which  are  made  into 
elder-wine,  for  home  consumption  at  Christmas,  when,  no 
doubt,  most  of  my  readers  have  drunk  it,  hot  and  spicy  and 
angary,  to  keep  out  the  wintry  cold.  From  the  same  tree 
are  commonly  made  those  harmless  engines  of  mimic  war- 
fare— pop-guns  I 

If  it  were  not  for  the  presence  of  the  pith,  which  is  in 
fact  the  very  quality  which  makes  it  valuable  to  boys  for  the 
latter  purpose,  this  wood  would  certainly  have  been  eagerly 
seized  upon  by  turners.  Even  with  this  defect,  it  is  used 
instead  of  box  for  the  inferior  kinds  of  carpenter's  rules 
and  other  purposes,  and  the  larger  pieces  will  make  very 
good  chucks,  if  a  little  care  is  exercised  to  prevent  splitting 
them.  It  is  indeed  a  wood  that  might  be  far  more  exten- 
sively used  in  this  way  than  it  is. 

The  YEW,  perhaps,  should  come  next  in  order,  for  this  toe 


MATERIALS  FOR  TURNING.  125 

is  very  close-grained  and  very  beautiful,  and  when  highly 
polished  it  will  bear  comparison  with  many  foreign  wooda 
which  we  import  at  a  high  price ;  it  is,  however,  brittle  and 
apt  to  splinter. 

WALNUT  varies  considerably  in  quality,  some  being 
harder  and  richer  in  grain  than  others.  This  wood,  how- 
ever, is  not  to  be  classed  among  those  which  are  properly 
speaking  hard,  as  it  can  be  cut  with  ease,  and  can  only  be 
planed  and  worked  as  deal  would  be,  viz.,  with  the  grain; 
whereas  the  hard  woods  work  with  almost  equal  facility  in 
either  direction.  This  indeed  in  a  great  measure  consti- 
*utes  the  difference  between  soft  and  hard  woods,  in  the 
turner's  sense  of  the  words.  If  you  were  to  hold  a  chisel 
flat  on  the  rest,  so  as  to  let  it  scrape  a  cylinder  of  wood  as 
it  revolved  in  the  lathe,  you  would  find  in  some  cases  that 
it  would  tear  out  the  fibres  in  shreds — these  are  soft  mooa*. 
In  other  cases  it  would  leave  the  surface  rough  but  other- 
wise tolerably  even,  and  with  some  it  would  leave  the  same 
fairly  turned. 

I  cannot  call  to  mind  any  English  wood  but  box  that 
can  be  turned  by  a  chisel  held  so  as  to  scrape  it,  but  the 
greater  number  of  foreign  woods  are  always  turned  in  this 
manner,  being  hard  and  close  in  the  grain. 

BIRCH. — Oh,  once-dreaded  tree  I  birch  !  with  its  long, 
swaying,  switchy  boughs,  drooping  as  in  sorrow  at  the 
mean  uses  to  which  it  was  applied!  It  is  nevertheless  a  very 


126  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC, 

useful  tree,  and  the  young  mechanic  can  take  full  revenge 
upon  it  by  cutting,  and  chipping,  and  turning  it  into  all 
sorts  of  useful  articles.  It  is,  however,  now  more  generally 
used  in  cabinetmakiug,  for  wardrobes,  bedsteads,  chests  ot 
drawers,  and  such  like,  as  it  looks  very  neat  when  planed 
and  varnished.  Perhaps,  as  a  wood  for  the  exercise  of  the 
turner's  art,  it  must  give  place  to 

BEECH,  which  is  a  common  and  excellent  material  fur 
the  essays  of  beginners,  who  can  turn  tool  handles  espe- 
cially from  the  small  trimmed  billets  of  it  which  are  kept 
by  the  chairmakers,  and  which  can  generally  be  bought  for 
a  trifling  sum  in  any  town,  and  in  many  villages.  If  not, 
the  wheelwright  may  be  applied  to  for  a  supply,  as  he  uses 
it  rather  extensively  for  the  felloes  of  his  wheels.  It  is 
peculiarly  liable  to  the  attacks  of  the  little  worm,  weevil  or 
maggot,  who  drills  such  innumerable  and  such  beautifully 
round  holes  in  furniture  that  stands  long  unused. 

Beech  is  often  used  for  the  screws  of  carpenters'  benches, 
as  it  takes  very  well  a  thread  of  such  size  as  is  required  for 
that  purpose.  It  will  also,  for  the  same  reason,  answer 
very  well  for  chucks,  for  which  it  has  the  recommendation 
of  cheapness  and  toughness. 

ASH  seems  to  come  next  upon  the  list.  It  is  probably 
the  most  useful  of  all  English  woods,  and  where  toughness, 
pliability,  with  moderate  hardness,  are  valuable  qualities, 
no  English  wood  can  exceed  it.  For  frames  of  carts  and 


MATERIALS  FOR  TURNING.  127 

carriages,  shafts,  agricultural  implements,  wheelbarrows, 
and  smaller  articles  of  husbandry,  it  is  precisely  what  is 
needed,  and  in  the  workshop  of  the  turner  it  is  equally 
valuable.  Tool-handles  of  ash  are  very  durable,  and  hold 
the  tool  with  great  firmness,  owing  to  the  natural  elasticity 
of  the  material.  It  may  be  stained  and  polished,  and  is 
then,  for  real  work,  preferable  to  the  more  costly  hard 
woods  of  which  handles  are  very  generally  made  for  the 
workshops  of  rich  amateur  mechanics. 

OAK  is  little  used  for  turning,  the  grain  being  too  coarse. 
The  young  mechanic  need  never  make  use  of  it  for  this 
purpose,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  elm. 

ELM  is,  nevertheless,  used  by  turners  for  the  wooden 
buckets  of  pumps,  and  is  a  generally  useful  wood.  Bulk 
for  bulk,  it  is  lighter  than  beech,  and  it  makes  a  good 
material,  it  is  said,  for  lathe  beds,  though  beech  is  more 
frequently  used.  It  will  answer  for  chucks,  as  indeed 
most  woods  will  that  can  be  cut  into  screws ;  it  is  very 
tough. 

EVERGREEN  OAK,  or  HOLM  OAK,  as  it  is  called,  is  very 
different  to  the  forest,  tree,  and  might  be  classed  among 
shrubs.  When  dry,  it  is  by  no  means  a  bad  wood  to  turn, 
and  will  take  a  good  screw  thread,  and  make  excellent 
chucks. 

ACACIA  is  an  excellent  wood.  It  is  of  a  yellowish  brown 
colour,  tolerably  ha^d.  and  will  take  a  good  polish.  It  if 


128  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


most  certainly  to  be  set  down  among  the  woods  valuable  to 
the  turner. 

SYCAMORE  is  white,  very  soft  until  old,  when  it  becomes 
much  harder.  This  is  also  a  turner's  wood,  and  used  ex- 
tensively for  wooden  bowls,  backs  of  brushes,  turned  boxes, 
and  what  is  generally  called  "  turnery."  A  little  of  this 
will  be  useful  to  the  young  mechanic.  It  will  make  excel- 
lent bread  platters,  stands  for  hot  water  jugs,  and  such 
like. 

HOLLY. — The  Christmas  garland,  with  its  red  berries 
decorating  even  the  poorest  homes  in  midwinter,  is  a  tree 
well  worth  the  attention  of  the  young  mechanic.  It  is  his 
substitute  for  the  more  precious  material  ivory,  and  from 
it  he  will  turn  the  white  draught  or  chess  men,  boxes,  and 
many  small  articles.  But  it  is  necessary  that  this  material 
should  be  perfectly  dry,  and  to  get  it  in  perfection,  care- 
fully preserved  to  insure  its  whiteness,  it  will  be  generally 
necessary  to  procure  it  ready  for  the  lathe  at  some  lathe- 
maker's,  or  at  first-class  cabinetmakers'.  If  cut  green,  it 
requires  long  seasoning,  during  which  it  shrinks  consider- 
ably. In  fact,  it  takes  some  years  entirely  to  rid  it  of  the 
great  quantity  of  moisture  which  it  contains.  It  is  well 
worth  procuring,  nevertheless,  for  it  is  nearly  as  white  and 
free  from  grain  as  ivory. 

Many  of  the  fruit-trees  of  our  orchards  and  gardens 
supply  good  material  to  the  turner.  APPLE.  PEAR, 


MATERIALS  FOR  TURNING.  119 


CHERRY,  PLUM,  and  some  others,  are  all  more  or  less 
useful.  The  grain  of  the  first  is  rather  dark,  the  fibres 
often  twisted.  It  looks  well  when  polished. 

PEAR  has  a  very  fine,  even  grain,  and  is  largely  used 
for  making  the  curved  templates  (or  patterns  of  curves  for 
architects  and  engineers)  ;  it  will  make  good  boxes,  and  is 
fairly  serviceable  to  the  turner.  Its  colour  is  light  brown, 
but  darkens  by  exposure. 

The  PLUM  has  a  wood  veined  very  like  that  of  the  elm, 
but  is  a  finer  and  better  wood  for  the  lathe.  This  is  the 
mild  plum,  and  not  the  grafted  fruit-tree  of  our  gardens, 
which  is  not  nearly  so  good.  The  wild  plum  is  excellent 
for  small  boxes,  and  looks  well  when  nicely  turned  and 
polished. 

CHERRY  is  a  very  excellent  wood,  and  naughty,  fast  boys, 
who  take  to  smoking,  like  young  Americans,  when  they 
ought  to  be  filling  their  young  brains  with  knowledge 
instead  of  narcotics,  know  very  well  that  it  is  made  into 
pipes  and  stems  of  pipes.  Happily  this  is  not  its  only 
use,  for  it  is  fit  for  many  other  purposes ;  and  for  light, 
elegant  furniture,  it  is  scarcely  to  be  equalled.  Dipped  in 
lime-water,  it  darkens,  and  by  doing  this  here  and  there,  a 
beautiful  mottled  appearance  is  given  to  it.  It  takes  an 
excellent  polish,  and  should  be  among  the  stores  of  the 
young  mechanic. 

We  now  come  to  another  soft,  white  wood.     The  LIMB, 


c3o  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


which,  as  it  is  more  even  in  grain,  more  easily  cut  in 
any  direction  than  most  woods,  is  greatly  used  by  carvers 
»nd  pattern-makers  (i.e.,  those  who  make  wooden  patterns 
of  wheels,  or  lathes,  or  machinery,  which  are  to  be  cast  in 
metal).  [The  pattern  is  pressed  into  damp  sand,  and  then 
removed,  and  the  melted  metal  is  then  poured  into  the  im- 
pression thus  made.  If  the  sand  is  too  wet,  the  process 
will  not  only  fail,  but  the  hot  metal  will  be  scattered  on  all 
sides,  inflicting  dreadful  burns  and  injuries  ;  but  with  care, 
the  young  amateur  may  make  castings  in  tin  or  lead,  as  will 
be  explained  by  and  by.]  Even  with  a  penknife  alone, 
very  pretty  ornaments  may  be  carved  from  the  wood  of  the 
lime,  and  also  horn  that  which  follows. 

WILLOW. — This  is  even  softer  than  the  last,  and  will 
plane  into  long,  thin  shavings,  which  are  made  into  hats. 
(Once  on  a  time  I  should  have  said  "  and  bonnets"  but  in 
these  days  no  one  would  recognise  such  articles.  They  are 
fast  fading  out  of  existence ;  but  I  think  quite  as  much 
sound  sense  used  to  be  found  under  them  as  is  now  found 
under  the  very  inefficient  substitutes  worn  by  ladies  of  the 
^resent  day.)  This  wood  will,  of  course,  turn  very  easily, 
but  requires  very  keen  tools.  In  fact,  sharp  gouges  and 
chisels  are  invariably  necessary  for  soft  wood  turning. 
Get  some  dry  willow  by  all  means,  if  you  can. 

The  last  wood  of  English  growth  which  the  young 
mechanic  is  likely  to  meet  with  is  the  thorn.  This  grows 


MATERIALS  FOR  TURNING.  13 j 

to  a  tolerably  large  size,  and  is  hard,  close-grained,  white, 
and  altogether  a  good  and  serviceable  wood.  It  will 
make  capital  chucks,  taking  a  clean  screw-thread,  is  easily 
procured,  and  is  therefore  strongly  recommended  to  the 
notice  of  the  young  mechanic.  The  woods  above  named, 
except  box,  are  all  to  be  considered  soft  woods,  and  will 
work  with  gouge  and  chisel;  but  box,  thorn,  elder,  and  one 
or  two  of  the  more  close-grained,  will  turn  pretty  well,  and 
can  be  smoothly  hollowed  out,  with  hard  wood  tools  held 
horizontally  upon  the  rest. 

HAED  WOODS. 

All  those  woods,  properly  called  hard,  including  the  best 
box,  are  of  foreign  growth,  mostly  coming  from  the  Tropics. 
I  do  not  know  why  they  should  be  so  much  harder  than 
those  of  temperate  climes,  but  so  it  is.  There  are,  however, 
woods  in  New  Zealand,  of  which  the  temperature  is  similar 
to  that  of  our  own  country,  which  are  also  exceedingly  hard 
and  difficult  to  work.  A  very  large  number  of  foreign 
woods  are  yearly  brought  to  England  in  logs  or  billets  or 
planks,  some  of  very  large  size,  and  all  of  great  weight. 
They  are  mostly  liable  to  one  defect,  viz.,  rottenness  of  the 
core  or  heart,  which  limits  the  size  of  the  pieces  which  can 
be  cut  from,  them.  They  can  all  be  procured  from  the 
London  lathe  and  tool  shops,  and  there  are  also  dealers  in 
these  woods  (Jacques  of  Covent  Garden,  Mundy  <fc  Berrie 


13*  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

of  Bunhill  Row,  and  some  others).  It  is  almost  impossible 
to  procure  them  in  the  country,  but  rosewood,  ebony,  king- 
wood,  &c.,  may  be  sometimes  had  in  such  small  pieces  aa 
the  young  mechanic  may  require,  at  the  cabinetmakers*. 
Among  the  most  useful  are — • 

EBONY,  of  which  there  are  two  or  three  kinds,  some 
harder  and  more  close-grained  and  blacker  than  others, 
and  one  which  is  called  green  ebony,  which  is  like  lignum- 
vitee  (an  English  wood,  but  which  grows  to  a  larger  size 
abroad ;  indeed,  many  so  called  English  woods  are  not 
really  so,  but  have  been  brought  from  other  countries  to  be 
grown  here).  The  general  colour  is  green,  but  the  veins 
are  rather  darker.  Bowls  and  skittle-balls  are  made  ol 
it.  It  is  not,  however,  of  the  same  general  use  as  the 
black  ebony,  which  is  very  largely  used  both  for  cabinet- 
work and  turning. 

BLACK  EBONY  is  very  close  and  hard,  and,  of  course,  pro- 
portionately heavy.  It  splits  readily,  but  when  chopped, 
the  chips  come  off  more  like  charcoal,  showing  no  con- 
sistency. This  is  the  kind  imported  from  the  Indies,  and 
especially  from  Madagascar  and  Mauritius,  and  is  the  best 
for  all  kinds  of  turned  work.  Portugal  affords  another 
kind,  which  bears  the  same  name,  but  is  more  brown  than 
black,  and  softer,  less  compact  in  grain,  and  generally 
of  less  value.  Ebony  will  bear  eccentric  work,  and  all 
kinds  of  beautiful  carving  and  ornamentation  in  the  lathe. 


MATERIALS  FOR  TURNING.  133 

ROSE-WOOD  is  very  commonly  used  for  furniture  and 
turned  work.  It  is  a  rich  red  wood,  grained  with  black.  It 
is  not  very  hard,  less  so  than  ebony,  and  has  more  evident 
grain  or  fibre.  It  turns  well,  and  some  pieces  are  very 
handsome. 

AFRICAN  BLACK-WOOD  is  in  appearance  similar  to  ebony, 
but  it  is  even  more  close  and  compact,  and  is  the  most  valu- 
able of  all  to  the  ornamental  turner.  When  this  or  ebony  is 
set  off  by  being  inlaid  with  ivory,  or  even  holly,  it  is  very 
lovely  in  its  intense  and  brilliant  blackness.  Either  this 
or  ebony  is  used  for  black  pieces  for  the  chessboard  01 
draughtboard,  though  stained  boxwood,  being  less  costly, 
is  sometimes  made  to  take  its  place. 

AFRICAN  CAM-WOOD  is  a  very  beautiful  material  when 
first  cut.  Its  rich  red  tint  is  diversified  with  the  most 
brilliant  yellow  streaks.  Unfortunately,  however,  these 
are  not  lasting.  Exposed  to  the  air,  they  gradually  become 
darker,  until  they  become  red  like  the  rest  of  the  wood. 
This  material,  however,  has  a  fine,  close  grain,  is  a  genuine 
hard  wood,  and  of  general  use  to  the  turner  for  ornamental 
articles  of  various  kinds. 

TULIP- WOOD  is  not  very  hard.  Cut  across  the  log,  the 
appearance  is  fine,  owing  to  the  rings  of  growth  being 
wavy  and  irregular,  in  dark  and  light  red  alternations,  that 
reminds  one  of  the  flower  after  which  it  is  called.  This 
tree,  indeed,  which  grows  to  a  large  size,  bears  flowera 


134  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


similar  to  those  of  our  gardens  imported  from  Holland, 
which  grow  upon  short  perpendicular  stems.  The  centre  or 
oore  of  tulip-wood  is  generally  rotten.  It  sucks  up  a  good 
deal  of  polish  before  the  grain  shows  out  brightly  and 
strongly,  from  being  less  hard  and  more  fibrous  than  many 
others  named  above. 

PARTHIDGE-WOOD  is  a  nice,  hard,  and  very  pretty  wood, 
rather  dark  or  gray.  The  fibres  seem  to  run  both  ways, 
giving  a  mottled  appearance  when  turned. 

CORAL-WOOD  is  bright  red,  hard,  and  close  in  grain,  well 
suited  for  red  chessmen,  where  that  colour  is  preferred  to 
black.  It  looks  very  handsome  in  the  midst  of  other 
coloured  specimens ;  otherwise,  like  all  material  of  one 
tint  and  free  from  veined  lines,  there  is  too  much  uniformity 
of  appearance  to  make  it  pleasing  to  the  eye  of  one  who  is 
gifted  with  appreciation  of  colour. 

It  is  not  necessary  for  me  to  go  in  order  through  a  long 
list  of  foreign  woods.  The  very  young  mechanic,  unless 
living  in  London,  will  seldom  meet  with  many  of  them ; 
and  a  very  good  selection  for  the  advanced  turner  will  be 
composed  of  the  following  : — 

BLACK  EBONY. 

COCOA  or  Cocus,  which  is  not  the  cocoa-nut  tree,  this 
being  a  palm,  the  wood  of  which  is  stringy  like  a  fern  or  a 
cane  ;  whereas,  cocoa  or  cocus  is  firm,  hard,  and  excellent. 

BLACK-wooD,which  cuts  finely  with  tools  for  eccentric  work. 


MATERIALS  FOR  TURNING.  135 


KING-WOOD,  a  good  and  useful  wood,  something  akin  in 
appearance  to  rosewood. 

SATIN-WOOD,  pale  yellow  grain,  like  watered  silk,  turns 
very  well,  but  is  by  no  means  hard ;  there  is  also  a  red 
sat  in  wood. 

ROSE-WOOD,  already  described ;  it  loses  colour  after 
exposure,  and  is  most  beautiful  newly  cut. 

If  the  above  are  added  to  the  most  useful  of  the  English 
woods  described  above,  it  will  scarcely  be  worth  while  to 
add  to  them  except  as  specimens.  It  is,  however,  very 
interesting  to  collect  and  arrange  these,  and  it  is  an  em- 
ployment well  worthy  of  the  attention  of  the  young 
mechanic.  Thin  slices  cut  across  the  grain,  and  some- 
times, or  in  addition,  slices  cut  with  the  grain,  should  be 
arranged  in  order  after  being  trimmed  to  shape  (round, 
square,  or  triangular,  or  even  six-sided).  They  should  be 
very  carefully  polished  to  bring  up  the  grain,  and  labelled 
with  the  common  and  Latin  (or  botanical)  name.  The 
country  from  which  procured,  with  short  notes  relative  to 
the  size  and  general  growth  of  the  tree,  should  be  added. 
This  will  compel  inquiry,  and  a  great  deal  of  information 
will  be  thus  gained  and  stored  up.  A  similar  collection  of 
English  woods  may  be  made,  and,  of  course,  with  much 
greater  ease. 

It  will  be  observed  that  I  have  said  nothing  of  the  pines, 
deal,  and  larch.  They  are  extensively  turned  in  the  lathe  , 


136  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

the  greater  part  of  the  common  painted  furniture  being 
made  therefrom ;  but  deal  is,  nevertheless,  not  a  turning 
wood.  It  splits  easily,  has  an  open  grain,  with  fibres 
loosely  connected,  and  although  it  can  be  cut  into  mould- 
ings with  sharp  chisels  and  gouges,  it  generally  needs  a 
little  rubbing  with  Dutch  rush,  fish-skin,  or  glass-paper ; 
after  which,  a  handful  of  its  own  shavings  held  against  it 
as  it  revolves  rapidly  in  the  lathe,  is  the  best  polisher.  Ol 
course,  however,  it  maj  be  varnished,  and  of  late  years  it 
has  become  fashionable,  when  thus  finished,  for  bedroom 
furniture.  It  is,  however,  m  this  case  generally  improved 
and  embellished,  by  having  thin  strips  of  coloured  woods 
inlaid  in  its  surface.  It  is  uceless  for  hollorc  work ;  and 
wood  that  cannot  be  hollowed  out  satisfactorily,  is  not  to  be 
classed  among  those  suitable  for  the  turner. 

Whenever  you  have  time  to  spare,  and  are  not  inclined 
to  turn,  yet  feel  disposed  to  wandei  into  your  workshop,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  trim  and  prepare  pieces  of  wood  for  the 
lathe.  You  need  a  chopping-block,  which  is  the  end  of  a 
stick  of  timber  sawn  evenly  across,  and  stood  up  in  some 
out-of-the-way  corner  where  chips  will  not  be  much  in  the 
way,  and  a  light  axe  or  adze,  which  latter  is  said  to  be  the 
best.  It  is  called  the  bassoohlah  or  Indian  adze,  but  I 
never  had  one,  nor  ever  saw  it  mentioned,  except  in  one 
very  excellent  book  by  the  late  Charles  Holtzappifel  of 
London,  who,  indeed,  keeps  these  tools.  But  a  light  ai*  u 


THE  PARING-KNIFE.  137 

easiiy  obtained,  and  will  do  very  well.  Take  care  to  sa^ 
the  pieces  off  truly  square — I  mean  straight  across  the  log, 
and  not  slanting  either  way.  Cut  some  from  your  ever- 
green oak,  or  beech,  or  elm,  for  cuucks,  remembering  to 
have  length  for  the  mandrel  screw,  beyond  what  you  will 
probably  need  for  hollowing  out,  to  take  the  pieces  to  be 
turned.  Cut  some  longer  than  others,  and  from  larger  or 
(smaller  pieces  ;  from  2-inch  diameter  to  4,  which  is  a  useful 
general  size.  But  your  lathe  of  5-inch  centre  will  take 
chucks  or  work  of  nearly  10  inches,  so  you  can  cut  some 
few  pieces  rather  larger.  Probably,  your  only  work  of  6  to 
9  inches  diameter  will  be  an  occasional  bread-platter,  or  a 
stand  of  some  sort ;  your  general  work  will  be  much  less. 
Besides  chucks,  of  which  the  number  is  in  time  very  great, 
you  will  be  constantly  wanting  tool-handles.  Cut  some 
for  these,  and  placing  one  end  on  the  chopping-block,  trim 
them  to  something  like  the  required  size,  but  a  good  deal 
larger  round  than  you  think  necessary,  because  you  will 
find  that  the  size  will  deceive  you  frequently. 

For  finally  trimming  up  short  pieces,  a  peculiar  knife  is 
used  by  the  lathe  and  tool  makers;  and  when  you  can  spare  ' 
the  money  you  should  get  one,  as  you  will  find  it  easy  to 
use,  and  it  will  save  you  many  a  cut  from  the  axe.  In 
fact,  I  never  advise  very  young  mechanics  to  make  use  of 
the  latter  tool.  It  requires  practice,  strength,  and  a  good 
deal  of  skill  to  use  it  well ;  and  nothing  is  more  easy  than 


I  HE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


to  lop  off  the  end  of  a  finger  or  thumb,  and,  unfortunately, 
nothing  is  more  difficult  than  to  repair  the  damage.  The 
paring-knife  for  short  thick  pieces  mentioned  above,  is 
made  like  D,  Fig.  43.  It  consists  of  a  long  and  curved 


Kg.  43. 

handle,  turned  up  at  one  end  to  fit  under  a  staple,  E,  with  a 
cross  piece  of  wood  for  the  hand  at  the  other  end,  and  a  broad 
strong  blade  with  one  bevel  in  the  middle — (by  one  bevel  I 
mean,  that  the  edge  is  not  like  that  of  an  axe,  but  like  thai 


THE  DRA  W.KNIFE. 


of  a  carpenter's  chisel,  the  bevel  or  sloping  part  being  out- 
side). C  is  the  piece  of  wood  to  be  pared,  A  the  bottom 
board  or  platform,  B  a  block  fastened  to  it,  and  made  on  a 
slope  to  prevent  the  tendency  of  the  wood  to  slip  away  from 
the  knife.  The  whole  of  this  may  be  screwed  down  to  the 
bench  j  or  to  a  heavy  stool  when  in  use.  The  hook  and 
ferule  should  not  be  made  so  large  and  loose  as  in  the 
drawing,  and  a  better  joint  is  that  of  an  ordinary  hinge. 
If  made  loosely,  the  blade  twists  about  too  much  from  side 
to  side,  escaping  from  the  wood.  There  is  no  danger  to  the 
fingers  from  this  useful  tool,  which  the  young  mechanic 
should  add  to  his  workshop  as  soon  as  he  can. 

Another  useful  and  easily-constructed  apparatus  for  the 
preparation  of  long  pieces  is  the  shave -stool,  used  by 
coopers  and  chairmakers  to  hold  the  pieces  securely  while 
they  are  being  shaped  by  the  double-handled  shave  or 
drawknife,  as  it  is  often  called,  a  tool  omitted  from  our 
list,  but  very  useful  all  the  same.  This  is  sketched  at  B, 
Fig.  43.  It  is  often  very  roughly  made,  the  chief  necessity 
being  that  it  shall  be  strong.  It  answers  also  for  a  sawing- 
stool.  Upon  the  stool  or  bench,  A,  is  fixed  a  sloping  block, 
B.  A  swinging  frame,  C,  is  hinged  or  pivoted  at  D,  so 
that  if  the  lower  part  is  pushed  back  from  left  to  right, 
the  upper  cross-bar,  E,  will  come  forward  and  almost  touch 
the  highest  part  of  the  sloping  block,  B,  so  that  any  piece 
of  wood,  such  as  F,  will  thereby  be  pinched  and  held  tightly 


1 40  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

between  the  rail,  E,  and  the  block.  The  workman  sitg 
astride  of  the  stool  at  A,  facing  the  block,  and  his  feet  are 
placed  on  the  bar  C.  When  he  wishes  to  hold  the  wood 
which  is  to  be  shaved  by  the  draw-knife  C,  he  presses  from 
him  with  his  feet  the  lower  part  of  the  frame,  and  he  can 
instantly  loosen  the  wood  by  drawing  his  feet  towards 
him.  The  movement  is  made  in  a  moment,  and  the  wood 
shifted  round  as  required,  and  alternately  turned  about  and 
held  tight,  while  the  drawknife  is  used  almost  ceaselessly. 
A  very  few  minutes  generally  suffices  thus  to  pare  down 
a  rough  piece  for  the  lathe.  The  cross-bar,  E,  should  be 
tolerably  strong,  and  is  better  if  not  rounded  very  nicely, 
as  the  edges  help  to  hold  the  wood.  The  latter  is  sure  not 
to  slip  away,  because  the  pull  of  the  drawknife  tends  to 
draw  it  up  higher  on  the  slope  of  the  block,  which  pulls  it 
into  a  still  narrower  opening.  Nothing  can  exceed  the 
ease  with  which  this  appliance  is  used,  and  the  rapidity 
with  which  the  required  operation  can  be  carried  on.  No 
wood-turner's  shop  should  be  without  one. 

ORDER  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF  TOOLS. 

I  must  say  a  word  or  two  as  to  neatness  and  order, 
especially  in  the  arrangement  of  tools  and  appliances  for 
the  lathe.  Whether  you  have  a  dozen  tools  or  a  hundred, 
always  put  them  in  the  same  place,  so  that  any  particular 
article  can  be  found  instantly,  no  time  being  wasted 


TOOL- RACK. 


141 


hunting  up  and  down,  or  examining  a  long  row  of  tools  for 
the  one  required  at  that  particular  time.  Turning  tools, 
moreover,  should  be  kept  distinct  from  those  used  for 
carpentry,  and  in  a  special  rack  by  themselves.  The  best 
tool-rack,  I  think,  which  can  be  made,  is  one  like  Fig.  44. 


Pif.44. 

This  may  be  made  of  deal,  but  the  pieces  between  the  holes 
are  thus  liable  to  get  split  off,  and  beech  or  ash  is  therefore 
preferable.  The  whole  frame  is  made  to  be  screwed  to  the 
wall ;  or,  if  the  latter  is  damp,  the  frame  should  be  first 
screwed  to  a  board  covered  with  baize,  and  this,  in  turn, 
fixed  to  the  wall.  Thus  arranged,  it  will  have  a  ver\  nent 


142  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

appearance,  and  the  tools  being  kept  dry,  will  remain 
generally  free  from  rust.  They  should,  nevertheless,  be 
carefully  looked  over  once  a  week  and  wiped,  when  those 
requiring  to  be  ground  should  be  subjected  to  that  opera- 
tion, and  thus  be  ready  for  future  use  when  required.  They 
are  bad  workmen  who  allow  blunt  or  damaged  tools  to  ac- 
cumulate, instead  of  at  once  setting  them  in  order.  The  hori- 
zontal bars  are  bored  with  holes  by  means  of  a  centrebit. 
The  holes  must  be  arranged  as  to  size  by  the  measurement 
of  the  ferules  of  the  tool  handles,  some  being  larger  and 
some  smaller,  so  that  when  the  tool  is  placed  in  any  hole, 
the  handle  will  drop  in  to  the  depth  of  the  ferule  and  fit. 
Thus  the  tools  will  all  stand  upright,  instead  of  leaning 
from  one  side  or  the  other.  After  the  holes  are  made,  a 
piece  is  cut  out  (see  fig.  B)  at  the  front  edge,  because  the 
blades  of  some  tools  are  wider  than  the  ferules,  and,  in 
addition,  if  this  were  not  done,  the  different  tool-rails  must 
be  as  far  apart  as  the  whole  length  of  the  tool  (handle  and 
all  included),  to  allow  of  the  latter  being  lifted  sufficiently 
high  to  drop  into  the  holes. 

The  strips  for  the  holes  should  be  about  2  inches  wide, 
the  lower  one,  for  the  larger  chisels  and  gouges,  rather 
wider  than  the  upper  ones.  Sometimes  these  tool-racks 
are  fitted  up  inside  a  cabinet,  whose  doors  have  similar 
racks  ;  thus  all  can  be  shut  in  out  of  the  reach  of  dust  and 
dirt.  HoltzappfFel,  the  great  lathemaker  of  London,  fits 


TOOL-RACK.  143 


up  such  cabinets  complete  in  oak  or  mahogany,  al?  the 
tools  being  handled  in  hard  wood  and  turned  to  one 
pattern.  The  cost,  however,  £5  and  upwards,  renders 
fciieh  less  desirable  to  d  e  young  meol^nic,  who  can  rig  up 
a  common  tool-rack,  which  will  serve  his  purpose  equally 
well.  It  is  also  far  more  satisfactory,  in  looking  round 
your  workshop,  to  feel  that  you  have  it  all  events  been  as 
little  extravagant  as  possible,  for  amateurs  get  no  return 
for  outlay  as  tradesmen  do. 


CHAPTER  IX- 


HERE    is    no    operation    in    which    the    young 
mechanic   is   so  much   at   fault  as  in   that   of 
grinding  and  setting  in  order  the  various  tools 
he  has  to  use.     Nevertheless  he  will  never  be- 
come either  an  independent  workman  or  a  good  one,  if  he 
has  to  depend  upon  others  for  this  necessary  labour. 

No  doubt,  to  sharpen  a  tool  which  is  in  very  bad  order 
is  a  tedious  and  tiresome  job ;  but  it  is  not  so  wearisome 
an  affair  to  keep  tools  in  condition  for  work,  after  they 
have  been  once  thoroughly  sharpened  by  one  who  under- 
stands how  to  do  it.  Never,  therefore,  use  a  blunt  tool,  but 
at  once  go  to  the  hone  or  grindstone  with  it,  and  put  it  in 
first-rate  order.  Time  thus  employed  is  never  wasted,  but 
rather  saved ;  and  the  result  will  appear  invariably  in  the 
work  which  you  are  engaged  upon.  You  must,  in  the  first 
place,  understand  precisely  what  it  is  you  have  to  do  ;  and 


FHE  ANGLES  OF  TOOLS.  145 

Although  the  following  details  may  be  by  some  considered 
more  adapted  for  advanced  students  than  for  young  me- 
chanics, a  little  attention  to  the  explanations  will  render  the 
matter  clear  to  any  boy  of  age  and  intelligence  to  take  in 
hand,  with  reasonable  prospect  of  success,  the  tools  of  the 
carpenter,  turner,  and  fitter.  I  can  only  say,  that  boys  ot 
this  generation  are  wonderfully  well  off  in  having  these 
things  explained  to  them.  Twenty  years  ago  young  me- 
chanics had  to  grope  along  in  the  dark,  ignorant  to  a  great 
extent  of  the  principles  of  work,  and  almost  equally  unin- 
structed  in  the  practical  part  of  it. 

In  Fig.  45  are  represented  similar  angles  to  those  already 
explained  to  you,  and  you  will  quickly  understand  how  use- 
ful is  a  little  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  mathematics. 
Suppose  A  to  be  a  tool,  the  angle  of  the  point  is  a  right 
angle,  or  90°.  B  is  another  of  60°  at  the  point,  and  I  have 
drawn  a  line  across  to  show  you  that  the  three  sides  of  this 
figure  (called  a  triangle)  are  equal.  So  remember  that  if 
you  want  an  angle  of  60°,  you  have  only  to  draw  a  triangle 
of  three  equal  sides,  and  each  of  these  angles  will  be  60°. 
Again,  I  may  as  well  remind  you  that  three  times  60°  equals 
180°,  which  is  equal  to  two  right  angles,  so  we  find  here  that 
the  three  angles  of  an  equal-sided  triangle  equal  two  right 
angles,  and  even  if  the  sides  are  not  equal,  the  same  thing 
is  true.  For  instance,  look  at  the  first  tool,  across  which  I 
have  also  drawn  a  line  to  make  a  triangle.  The  point  we 


I46 


THE   YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


know  is  90°,  and  if  the  sides,  a  b,  are  equal  (although  the 
third  line  is  not  equal  to  either),  the  two  small  angles  are 


A    A 


E  70  F         So  fz         ffo 


Fig.  45. 

each  45°,  i.e.,  90°  between  them,  so  the  three 
equal  180°. 


again 


THE  ANGLES  OF  TOOLS.  147 

The  third  tool  (which  we  may  suppose  a  turner's  chisel 
held  edgewise)  is  shown  to  have  an  angle  of  30°,  and  I  have 
added  one  more  which  has  an  angle  of  45°.  Now  all  tools, 
if  well  ground,  are  ground  to  a  certain  known  angle,  accord- 
ing to  the  material  which  they  are  intended  to  cut.  Tools 
intended  to  cut  soft  woods,  like  deal,  are  ground  to  an  angle 
of  20°  to  30°,  like  the  chisel  seen  edgewise.  I  shall  have  a 
word  to  say  presently  as  to  the  direction  in  which  such 
tools  are  to  be  held,  in  order  to  make  them  cut  as  well  as 
possible.  A  tool  for  hard  wood  is  given  next  at  E.  The 
angle  is  now  at  least  40°,  and  it  ranges  up  to  80°,  giving  a 
stronger,  thicker  edge,  but  not  so  keen  a  one.  We  have, 
therefore,  more  of  a  scraping  tool  than  a  cutting  one, — at 
least,  in  the  way  it  is  usually  held.  Then  we  come  to  the 
tools  with  which  iron  is  turned  and  steel  also.  Fig.  F  is 
one  of  these,  and  the  usual  angle  is  60°,  and  thence  it 
ranges  to  90°.  Thus  you  see,  advancing  from  soft  wood 
tools  to  those  for  hard  wood,  and  thence  to  a  substance  still 
harder,  we  have  increased  the  angle  of  the  edge,  beginning 
at  30°  and  ending  with  80°  or  90°.  But  now  we  come  to  a 
material  which  is  harder  than  wood  and  not  so  hard  as 
iron,  yet  we  use  tools  with  an  angle  of  90°,  which  is  still 
greater,  and  70°  is  the  least  angle  ever  used  for  this  metal. 
Experience  only  has  taught  the  proper  angle  for  tools, 
and  it  is  found,  that  if  brass  and  gun-metal  are  turned  with 
tools  of  a  less  angle  than  70°,  they  only  catch  into  the 


148  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

material,  and  do  not  work  at  all  satisfactorily.  You  can, 
however,  scrape  brass,  as  a  finish,  with  the  thin  edge  of  a 
common  chisel ;  but  then  the  tool  is  held  so  as  to  scrape 
very  lightly  and  polish ;  and  its  edge  will  not  remain  many 
minutes,  unless  the  maker  (intending  it  to  be  so  used)  has 
made  it  much  harder  than  he  would  make  it  for  sofc  wood 
cutting. 

If  you  buy  your  tools  at  any  good  shop,  you  will  find  that 
they  are  already  ground  to  nearly  the  angles  named,  and 
when  you  re-grind  them,  you  must  endeavour  to  keep  them 
to  the  same.  The  bevel,  as  it  is  called,  of  many  tools  need 
not  be  ground  at  all,  as  they  may  be  sharpened  solely  by 
rubbing  the  upper  face  on  a  hone,  or  grinding  it,  holding  it 
so  that  the  stone  shall  act  equally  on  all  parts  of  it.  If, 
however,  the  tool  should  become  notched,  you  must  grind 
the  bevel  of  it,  and  then  you  must  try  and  keep  the 
intended  angle.  One  tool,  however,  or  rather  one  pair  of 
tools,  viz.,  turning-gouges  and  chisels,  are  very  seldom 
ground  with  a  sufficiently  long  bevel  when  they  first  come 
from  the  maker.  The  usual  shape  of  the  edge  is  like  G-, 
whereas  the  angle  should  be  much  less,  as  seen  at  H.  This 
you  must  correct  when  you  first  grind  the  tools  for  use,  and 
keep  the  same  long  bevel  and  small  angle  of  edge  continu- 
ally afterwards,  for  you  will  never  make  good  work  on  soft 
wood  if  your  chisels  and  gouges  are  ground  with  too  short 
a  bevel 


THE  ANGLES  OF  TOOLS.  149 

I  must  also  guard  you  against  another  common  error, 
which,  however,  is  very  difficult  to  avoid  at  first,  and  only 
long  practice  will  enable  you  entirely  to  overcome  it.  I,  is 
the  chisel  (held  edgewise  as  before)  ground  as  it  ought  to 
be ;  K  is  the  same  tool  ground  as  it  generally  is  by  young 
hands  or,  even  if  it  is  correctly  formed  at  the  grindstone, 
one  or  two  applications  to  the  oilstone  almost  invariably 
round  it  off  as  shown.  The  bevel  of  all  tools  must  be  kept 
quite  flat  and  even,  and  when  the  tool  is  afterwards  rubbed 
on  the  oilstone  to  give  a  finish  to  the  edge,  another  flat, 
even  bevel  should  be  made.  In  the  same  figure  at  L  is  at 
exaggerated  view  of  the  chisel,  with  its  first  long  bevel 
formed  at  the  grindstone,  and  the  second  very  small 
bright  bevel  seen  at  the  extreme  edge  of  all  such  toola 
when  they  have  been  set  upon  the  oilstone.  This  second 
bevel,  slight  as  it  is,  you  will  at  once  understand  makes 
the  angle  of  the  edge  a  little  larger,  therefore  you  must 
allow  for  it,  and  grind  a  little  keener  edge  than  you  really 
require. 

Now.  all  this  is  very  simple  and  easy  to  understand,  and 
when  you  have  mastered  this  much,  you  will  be  in  a  fair 
way  to  understand  more.  The  second  part  of  the  subject, 
nevertheless,  requires  very  close  attention,  and  very  likely 
may  not  become  quite  clear  to  you  when  explained.  I  shall 
therefore  draw  a  line  here,  and  make  this  lesson  a  special 
paragraph,  which  you  can  look  back  to  some  other  day, 


1 5  o  THE  YO  UNG  ME  CHANIC. 


when  you  are  grown  from  a  boy-mechanic  to  a  man,  and 
have  had  more  experience  in  cutting  and  turning  wood  and 
metal. 


HE  tools  above  described  have  their  cutting 
edges  formed  by  the  meeting  of  two  planes 
at  a  given  angle, — these  planes  being  the 
flat  bevels  (or  the  flat  top  and  one  bevel) 
formed  by  the  grindstone.  But  in  some  tools  three  planes 
meet  to  form  an  edge  instead  of  two,  and  the  angle  of  the 
cutting  edge  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  either  of  these, 
although  it  depends  upon  them,  and  can  be  nicely  calcu- 
lated. This  calculation,  however,  requires  a  knowledge  of 
some  higher  branches  of  mathematics  than  the  young 
mechanic  is  supposed  to  be  acquainted  with,  and  therefore 
a  table  is  added  instead,  by  which,  when  the  angles  of  two 
of  these  planes  are  known,  the  third  may  be  at  once 
seen,  which  last  determines,  of  course,  the  angle  of  the 


As  an  example,  take  the  graver,  of  which  you  will  find  a 
drawing  among  the  other  tools,  but  which  I  give  again  in 
this  place.  M,  Fig.  45,  is  the  tool,  looking  at  the  face  or 
bevel  which  has  been  ground  upon  it,  making  a  lozenge-shape 
or  diamond.  But  this  face  is  a  third  plane,  and  the  cutting 


THE  ANGLES  OF  TOOLS.  151 

edges,  a  and  b,  depend  for  their  angles  upon  all  three  of 
these.  Now,  for  iron  we  want  an  angle  of  60°.  How  are 
we  to  make  the  edges,  a  b,  of  that  exact  size  ?  The  bar  is 
first  of  all  square  in  section,  like  N,  which  would  be  its 
shape  before  the  third  face  or  bevel  is  ground,  and  all  the 
angles  are  now  right  angles  of  90°  each.  But  instead  of 
this,  we  want  two  of  them  60°,  the  other  two  being  of  no 
importance.  We  simply  proceed  thus : — Determine  which 
angle  is  to  become  the  point  of  the  tool  (it  is  no  matter  in 
the  present  case,  as  all  are  alike),  then  grind  away  under- 
neath till  the  new  bevel  forms  an  angle  of  45°  with  the 
back  (by  which  I  mean  the  edge  which  runs  along  from  the 
sharp  point  towards  the  handle — the  edge  x  in  fig.  0). 
Trigonometry  enables  us  to  find  out  that  an  angle  of  45°  is 
the  one  required,  but  you  will  find  it  in  the  table  annexed 
to  this  chapter,  and  an  explanation  of  this  table  is  also 
given  to  enable  you  to  use  it  easily.  Thus  ground,  the 
edges  a  b  of  fig.  0  will  be  each  formed  of  two  planes 
meeting  at  an  angle  of  60°.  You  can  make  a  gauge  of 
card  or  tin,  P,  to  work  by,  of  the  required  angle. 

In  order  to  understand  the  use  of  this  table,  it  is  necessary 
to  give  names  to  the  several  angles  of  a  tool.  That  upon 
the  front  or  face  of  the  tool,  as  A  of  the  point-tool,  is 
called  the  plan-angle ;  that  made  by  the  upper  surface  and 
the  front  edge,  as  B  (a,  being  the  angle  in  question),  is 
called  the  section  angle,  because,  if  you  were  to  saw  right 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


through  the  central  line  lengthwise,  this  is  the  angle  that 
would  appear  at  the  point,  viewing  it  sideways.     Now,  if 

TABLE  OF  ANGLES  FOR  CUTTING  TOOLS. 


ANGLE 


.L 
Will  give  cuttii 

PLAN" 
A.NGLK8. 

SEC 

79°  5" 
78°  5" 
77° 
76° 
72°  5" 

TION  AKGI 
69° 

67° 
63°  5' 
61° 
53°  5" 

ES. 

49°  5" 
45° 

29° 

140° 

120° 
100° 
90° 
70° 

ig  edges 

80°           70°           60° 

Fig.  46. 

we  look  at  C,  Fig.  47,  we  shall  be  able  to  understand  how  the 
front  line,  b  c,  is  obtained,  which  constitutes  one  side  of  the 
section  angle  of  a  tool.  It  results  from  the  meeting  of  the 
two  diamond-shaped  planes  at  the  sides  formed  by  the 


b-.    * 


\ 


Fig.  47. 

grindstone,  but  is  dependent  also  on  the  plan-angle.     These 
two  side-planes  are  to  be  generally  ground  at  an  angle  of 


THE  ANGLES  OF  TOOLS.  153 

about  3°  from  the  vertical,  which  is  to  give  the  clearance  of 
the  tool  if  held  in  a  fixed  position,  as  in  the  tool-holder  of 
a  slide-rest,  the  tool  being  supposed  horizontal.  This  is 
in  accordance  with  what  I  have  before  told  you,  viz.,  that 
the  cutting  edge  should  be  presented  to  the  work  at  the 
smallest  possible  angle,  3°  being  very  small  indeed.  This 
angle  is  generally  measured  by  placing  the  ^ide  ground  in 
contact  with  a  cone  of  wood  or  metal,  turned  to  an  angle 
of  3°,  such  as  D, — k  being  a  tool  the  front  of  which  is 
evidently  3° ;  or  a  piece  of  tin,  I,  cut  to  the  same  angle, 
and  stood  on  its  edge,  will  answer  the  same  purpose.  By 
3°,  I  mean  an  angle  of  3°  measured  on  the  circumference  of 
a  circle,  as  I  have  already  explained  in  a  former  page,  such 
angle  being  of  course  at  the  centre  of  the  circle  where  the 
lines  drawn  from  the  several  degrees  on  the  circumference 
meet. 

Now,  when  you  have  ground  these  two  surfaces,  the  line 
b  c  of  B  (or  C)  will  have  a  certain  slope  or  inclination 
depending  on  the  plan-angle  of  the  point.  The  exact 
inclination  of  it  may  be  therefore  said  to  be  accidental ;  but, 
whatever  it  is,  it  becomes  of  great  importance  in  the  final 
result,  being  one  side  of  the  angle  which  will  give  any  par- 
ticular angle  of  cutting  edge.  And  here  the  table  comes 
into  use: — Suppose  I  wish  to  have  an  edge  of  60°,  for 
cutting  iron.  Measure  the  plan-angle, — say  it  is  90°, 
wtiich  is  that  of  the  graver;  then,  on  the  table,  under  the 


154  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

words  "  plan  angle,"  you  will  see  90°,  and  opposite,  above 
60°  of  "  cutting  edges,"  you  will  see  45°.  You  have  only 
to  grind  back  the  upper  face  of  the  tool,  until  it  makes  an 
angle  of  45°  (section  angle)  with  the  front  edge  or  line,  b  c, 
and  the  edges  x  x  will  be  angles  of  60°.  Or  take  the  tool 
E,  of  which  the  plan  angle  is  120°,  and  suppose  you  want 
cutting  edges  of  80°,  for  brass,  opposite  120°,  and  above 
80°,  is  78°  5".  Grind  back  the  top  face  to  an  angle  of 
78°  5"  (or  78^)  with  the  point  line,  and  it  is  done. 

Until  you  have  practically  proved  it,  you  can  have  no 
idea  of  the  vast  importance  of  having  correctly-formed 
cutting  edges,  and  of  placing  them  within  a  hair's-breadth 
of  the  proper  position.  But  it  is  in  slide-rest  work  espe 
cially,  and  in  cutting  metal  with  tools  held  rigidly  in  one 
position,  that  this  is  of  such  paramount  importance.  It 
makes  all  the  difference  between  cutting  off  a  clean  shaving, 
and  tearing  from  the  material  by  main  force  a  quantity  of 
disjointed  particles,  the  latter  process  leaving  a  rough 
unfinished  surface,  the  former  producing  one  as  smooth  and 
polished  as  a  sheet  of  glass ;  and  the  advantage  of  this 
short  table  is,  that  you  can  at  any  time  shape  your  own 
tools  for  the  particular  work  in  hand. 

After  you  have  had  some  practice  in  turning,  you  should 
certainly  learn  to  shape  your  tools  from  square  bars  of  steel, 
worn  files,  and  broken  steel  tools  of  various  kinds ;  and 
before  you  have  arrived  at  sufficient  dexterity  to  do  this 


POSITION  OF  TOOLS.  155 

entirely  by  yourself,  you  will  get  them  roughly  shaped  for 
you  by  the  blacksmith,  and  then  with  grindstone  and  file 
you  will  further  perfect  the  angles  for  use.  Steel  does  not 
require,  and  must  on  no  account  be  subjected  to,  a  white 
heat,  or  you  will  spoil  it  hopelessly ;  and  you  can  always 
heat  it  in  a  common  fire,  or  in  the  little  stove  that  I  shall 
describe  in  a  subsequent  chapter,  to  a  temperature  that 
will  allow  you  to  bend  it  into  any  required  form  with  the 
hammer  and  anvil — a  bright  red  being  the  utmost  heat  it 
must  be  brought  to. 

POSITION  OF  CUTTING  TOOLS. 

We  must  now  consider  the  mode  of  applying  the  edge  oi 
a  tool  to  the  work,  so  as  to  produce  the  best  effect.  First, 
we  will  consider  the  case  of  a  gouge  and  chisel  acting  upon 
soft  wood. 

In  Fig.  48,  A  represents  a  piece  of  wood  in  the  lathe,  as 
you  would  see  it  if  you  stood  at  one  end  of  it,  and  a  chisel 
is  being  held  against  it.  The  arrow  shows  the  direction  in 
which  the  wood  is  supposed  to  be  revolving.  Held  thus, 
the  chisel  would  scrape,  and  its  edge  would  be  carried  off 
at  once ;  it  could  not  possibly  cut.  But,  held  as  at  B,  it 
would  cut  off  a  clean  and  continuous  shaving  as  the  wood 
revolved  against  it,  and  this  shaving  would  slide  off  along 
the  upper  face,  #,  of  the  tool,  so  that  you  can  see  that  this  face 
ought  to  offer  the  least  possible  resistance  to  it.  The  tool 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


POSITION  OF  TOOLS.  157 

acts,  ii  fact,  like  a  very  thin,  sharp  wedge,  which  divides 
the  material  by  pressure,  which  has  to  be  great  or  slight 
according  as  the  edge  is  sharp  and  thin  or  the  contrary. 
Now,  if  you  again  look  at  A,  you  will  see  that  this  wedge- 
like  action  cannot  take  place,  so  that  the  tool  is  in  its 
worst  possible  position. 

Between  the  two  positions,  however,  here  shown,  are 
several  others  at  a  greater  or  less  angle  to  the  surface  01 
the  wood ;  but  the  smallest  possible  angle  it  can  make  is» 
the  best,  so  long  as  the  thickness  of  shaving  removed  will 
suffice  for  your  purpose.  This  rule  holds  good  with  all 
tools,  whether  carpenters'  or  turners',  which  are  made  with 
sharp-cutting  edges.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  that 
the  lower  face  of  the  tool  does  not  rub  against  the  work, 
which,  again,  it  is  evident,  limits  to  a  given  degree  the 
angle  at  which  the  cutting  edge  is  to  be  applied  to  the 
work. 

We  now  pass  on  to  C,  which  represents  the  ordinary  tool 
for  turning  iron,  held  flat  upon  the  rest,  the  position  it 
usually  occupies.  We  see  at  once  that  in  this  case  also  we 
have  a  scraping  tool  only,  and  that,  although  the  angle  of 
the  edge  is  far  greater  than  that  of  the  chisel,  it  must  soon 
be  ground  off  by  the  action  of  the  metal  to  which  it  is  ap- 
plied, or  of  the  hard  wood,  which  is  also  cut  in  this  way. 
But  with  this  form  of  tool  we  shall  find  it  impossible  to 
apply  it  so  as  to  cut  in  the  best  way ;  because  if  we  lower 


158  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

the  handle,  as  we  did  that  of  the  chisel,  the  part  below  the 
edge  will  rub  against  the  work,  while  the  edge  itself  will 
be  moved  out  of  contact  with  it.  Thus  we  are  obliged  to 
hold  the  tool  in  the  position  first  shown ;  but  we  may 
therefore  conclude  that  the  tool  itself  is  a  badly  formed  one 
for  the  intended  purpose ;  and  so  it  is,  although  you  will 
see  it  in  almost  every  workshop  in  the  kingdom.  Let  us 
Bee  what  can  be  done  to  improve  it.  At  D,  I  have  repre 
Bented  the  same  tool,  but  the  blackened  part  shows  what 
has  been  filed  away  from  the  upper  face,  and  the  dotted 
lines  show  .that,  when  this  has  been  done,  a  tool  is  made 
very  similar  to  the  chisel  for  wood,  and  that  it  is  also  now 
in  a  good  position  for  cutting  (not  scraping),  although  it  is 
still  held  horizontally  upon  the  rest.  Shavings  of  iron 
curl  off  the  upper  face  of  this,  as  wood  shavings  curl  off 
upon  a  chisel. 

If  the  angle,  however,  is  too  small,  the  edge  will  soon  be 
broken  off,  and  the  tool  will  dig  into  the  work  ;  hence  the 
necessity  of  knowing  at  what  angle  a  tool  ought  to  be 
ground  to  cut  any  particular  metal  successfully. 

Such  a  tool  as  the  last  named,  which  is  intended  only  to 
cut  with  the  front  edge,  and  which  is  represented  in  E,  is 
called  a  single-edged  one,  because  it  only  cuts  in  one 
direction,  but  many  others  are  double-edged,  cutting  the 
shaving  at  once  on  the  flat  and  edge — that  is,  paring  it  off 
from  the  material  below  and  also  from  the  side.  For 


POSITION  OF  TOOLS. 


159 


instance,  F  is  a  cylinder  of  iron,  from  which  a  shaving  is 
supposed  to  be  in  process  of  being  cut.  It  has  to  be  re- 
moved from  the  shoulder  to  which  it  is  represented  as  still 
adhering,  and  also  from  the  flat  surface,  e  6,  around  which 
it  was,  as  it  were,  once  coiled.  But  this  requires  two  cut- 
ting edges,  both  acting  at  the  same  time,  but  in  different 
directions ;  and  good  mechanics  therefore  so  form  the  tools, 
and  so  use  them,  as  to  cut  in  both  directions,  which  leaves 
the  work  beautifully  smooth  and  even. 

These  tools  are  mostly  used  in  the  slide-rest,  where  their 
true  position,  once  determined,  can  be  accurately  main- 
tained ;  and  it  is,  perhaps,  only  with  the  slide-rest  that 
perfect  work  can  be  done.  There  is,  however,  no  reason 
why  you  should  not  use  tools  of  all  kinds  intelligently,  and 
understand  exactly  how  they  should  be  formed,  and  how 
held.  Suppose  you  have  a  tool  correctly  made  by  the  aid 
of  the  table  of  tool  angles  already  explained,  still  looking  at 
fig.  F,  you  can  see  that  the  smaller  part  of  the  roller  is  that 
which  is  to  be  left  finished,  and  that  it  ought  to  be  quite 
smooth,  but  the  shoulder  at  a  is  not  of  the  same  degree  of 
importance.  A  tool  fit  for  such  work  would  evidently  be 
shaped  on  iis  plan-angle  or  face,  like  H  in  fig.  C  or  I;  and, 
if  held  as  seen,  both  edges  would  be  brought  into  action  at 
the  same  time,  as  will  be  at  once  evident  on  inspection. 
In  practice,  however,  the  two  edges  would  not  be  allowed 
io  touch  for  their  whole  length,  or  the  angle  on  the  right 


160  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

would  leave  a  set atch  upon  the  finished  work ;  therefore  it 
would  be  eased  off  a  little,  as  at  K,  L.  But  this  is  evidently 
as  nearly  as  possible  the  shape  and  position  to  be  given 
to  such  a  tool,  and  the  edge  which  has  to  leave  the 
finished  surface  should,  as  it  were,  follow  the  other ;  the 
right-hand  angle  being  just  and  only  just  kept  out  01 
cut. 

The  hand-tools  you  will  generally  use  are  the  heel-tool, 
M,  held  on  the  rest  as  shown,  which,  you  see,  brings  the 
edge  into  cut  at  the  least  possible  angle  to  the  work,  and 
the  nail-head,  which  is  in  fact  a  heel-tool  of  four  faces,  or, 
if  round,  a  heel-tool  all  edge,  and  which  can  be  rolled  over 
as  it  gets  blunted.  To  these  add  the  graver,  of  which  I  have 
already  spoken.  I  have  tried  to  show  its  position  at  0,  with 
the  bevel  of  the  face  pointed  in  the  direction  of  the  shoulder, 
and  downwards  ;  but  it  can  be  held  face  upwards  also,  and 
in  one  or  two  other  positions.  Always  remember  that  the 
cutting  edge  is  to  be  presented  at  a  small  angle  with  the 
work,  and  you  cannot  go  wrong  if  the  tool  is  well  formed. 
The  nail-head  and  heel-tools  are  single  edged,  and  easily 
ground  without  the  table  of  angles,  but  the  graver  is  a 
double-edged  tool,  properly  speaking,  although  only  one 
edge  may  perhaps  be  used. 

Having  explained  the  principles  upon  which  you  have 
to  work  as  regards  grinding  your  tools  and  holding  them 
when  in  use,  I  shall  merely  add  a  few  remarks  as  to  the 


GRINDING  AND  SETTING.  161 

action  of  the  grindstone  and  oilstone,  and  the  proper  way 
of  using  them. 

Always  let  the  stone  revolve  towards  you,  as  if  you  had 
to  turn  it  smooth  with  the  tool  you  have  to  sharpen,  except 
when  you  cannot  possibly  do  so  without  cutting  grooves  in 
it.  Chisels,  knives,  axes,  planes,  and  all  similar  tools 
with  flat  edges,  are  to  be  ground  with  the  stone  running  in 
that  direction,  by  which  means  you  will  avoid  giving  them 
a  wire  edge,  as  it  is  called  (i.e.,  a  ragged-looking  edge), 
and  it  will  instead  be  even  and  sharp ;  the  filament  of 
metal  being,  as  it  were,  driven  back  into  the  substance  of 
the  tool,  instead  of  drawn  away  from  it.  Gouges  may  be 
ground  in  the  same  way,  but  must  be  rolled  about  to  keep 
up  the  form  of  edge.  It  is  indeed  the  easiest  way  with 
these  to  hold  them  across  the  stone,  in  the  same  direction 
as  its  axis,  and  then,  by  rolling  them  over  backwards  and 
forwards,  you  can  give  a  very  good  shape  to  the  edge,  which 
should  run  slightly  to  a  point,  or  rather  tend  to  one.  They  are 
never  to  be  ground  square  across,  like  that  of  the  carpenter. 

It  is  generally  necessary  to  have  some  sort  of  rest  upon 
which  to  lay  the  tools  during  the  operation  of  grinding, 
but  do  not  trust  to  special  contrivances  for  holding  them 
at  the  precise  angle  needed ;  rather  trust  to  your  own  skill, 
which  will  increase  more  and  more  by  being  severely  exer- 
cised. Always  remember  to  grind  your  tools  to  a  sharper 
angle  than  will  be  ultimately  required,  that  the  final  angle 


1 62  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

may  be  given  by  the  oilstone.  Of  the  latter  there  are 
many  kinds.  Nothing  probably  can  surpass  a  Turkey 
stone,  if  good,  but  this  varies  considerably  in  hardness  and 
other  qualities.  There  is  a  very  quick- cutting,  slightlj 
coarse  stone  from  Nova  Scotia,  which  is  very  serviceable, 
as  it  does  this  tedious  work  with  great  rapidity,  not,  how- 
ever, putting  on  the  tools  a  very  fine  edge,  but  one  that 
admirably  suits  for  such  as  are  to  be  used  on  metal.  With 
the  rest,  a  rub  or  two  on  Turkey,  or  Arkansas,  or  Chorley 
Forest  stone,  will  impart  a  finish.  Arkansas  stone,  how- 
ever, may  be  had  coarse  as  well  as  fine ;  it  is  much  liked 
by  some,  but  I  prefer  the  Nova  Scotia,  as  it  cuts  mon, 
keenly,  and  even  with  the  sharpest  stone,  setting  tools  is  a 
most  laborious  process. 

The  young  mechanic  will  find  it  very  difficult  at  first  to 
hold  the  tool  steady,  and  to  move  it  to  and  fro  upon  the 
oilstone  so  as  not  to  give  it  any  rolling  movement,  by 
which  the  edge  and  bevel  would  be  rounded,  as  I  before 
explained,  which  would  in  effect  enlarge  the  angle  of  the 
cutting  edge,  besides  preventing  it  from  being  held  at  a 
sufficiently  small  angle  to  the  work  to  cut  effectively. 
Nothing  but  practice  will  overcome  this  difficulty ;  I  shall 
not  therefore  attempt  to  describe  exactly  how  the  tool 
should  be  held  and  the  sharpening  effected,  such  descrip- 
tion being  not  only  difficult,  but,  as  experience  has  proved 
to  me,  impossible. 


CHAPTER  X. 

E  now  enter  upon  the  actual  work  of  the  lathe, 
which  should  be  comparatively  easy  to  under- 
stand after  the  foregoing  observations. 

Your  raw  material  having  been  chopped  or 
shaved  into  a  rough  cylindrical  form,  you  have  to  mount  it 
in  the  lathe.  I  may  suppose  it  a  piece  of  beech  for  a  tool- 
handle.  If  you  have  the  cross-chuck,  you  should  use  it ; 
if  not,  you  may  use  the  prong  instead.  In  either  case, 
centre  the  wood  as  truly  as  you  can,  so  that,  when  the  rest 
is  fixed  near  it,  the  piece  may  not  be  much  farther  from  it, 
as  it  revolves,  in  one  place  than  another.  Mind  and  screw 
down  the  back  poppit  tightly  upon  the  lathe-bed,  and  also 
the  rest,  putting  the  latter  as  near  the  work  as  you  can 
without  touching  it.  Now  set  the  lathe  in  motion, — this 
is  tolerably  easy,  but  to  keep  it  in  motion  will  probably 
not  be  easy  at  all.  It  is  one  of  those  operations  which 


1 64  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

require  practice,  because  while  your  leg  is  at  work  upon 
the  treddle,  your  body  must  be  firm  and  still,  so  that  you 
feel  yourself  free  to  use  the  tools  without  giving  much 
attention  to  what  your  leg  is  doing.  After  a  while  you 
will  do  this  with  perfect  ease.  The  wood  is,  of  course,  to 
rotate  towards  you,  and  the  surface  will  come  in  contact 
with  the  edge  of  the  tool  as  the  latter  is  held  tightly  dorcn 
on  the  rest.  Now,  this  is,  after  all,  the  real  difficulty,  for 
every  projection  striking  the  tool  tends  to  jerk  it  off  the 
rest,  and  this  has  to  be  resisted  with  some  force.  There  is, 
however,  this  advantage  in  hand- tools,  viz.,  that  they  may 
be  held  rigidly  yet  be  allowed  some  slight  play,  according 
to  the  peculiar  exigencies  of  the  work ;  and  at  first  you 
will  save  the  tool  by  allowing  it  to  yield  slightly  until  the 
roughest  part  has  been  cut  away.  Afterwards,  there  is  to 
be  no  movement  except  that  required  to  make  it  follow  the 
curves  or  level  parts  of  the  work.  Do  your  best  first  to 
produce  a  cylinder,  i.e.,  a  straight,  even  piece  of  wood,  as 
long  as  the  required  handle,  and  as  large  round  as  the 
largest  part  proposed  to  be  given  it.  It  is  the  best  plan  at 
first  to  copy  a  well- shaped  handle,  and  to  turn  as  many  as 
you  want  of  that  size  exactly  to  the  same  pattern.  This 
will  give  you  such  an  amount  of  practice  in  copying  form, 
as  will  stand  you  in  good  stead  in  after  days ;  for  it  is  not 
easy  at  first  to  turn  even  two  things  exactly  to  pattern 
and  to  size. 


HAND-TURNING  IN  WOOD.  165 

You  must  not  expect  to  be  able  to  run  your  tools  along 
the  work  like  a  professional  or  old  hand  at  the  lathe ;  you 
must  do  the  best  you  can.  Hold  the  handle  in  the  right 
hand,  and  with  the  left  grasp  both  rest  and  tool  together, 
and  you  will  hold  it  firmly.  Then  you  ought  to  run  it 
along  right  or  left  at  the  right  speed  and  the  right  angle, 
but  you  will  be  unable  to  do  so  yet ; — never  mind.  Re 
member  the  principle  I  have  laid  down  as  to  the  position 
and  angles  of  cutting  tools,  and  trust  to  time  and  per- 
severance to  make  you  a  good  workman. 

The  gouge  is  the  easiest  and  best  tool  to  use  at  first ; 
and  you  can  do  a  fair  amount  of  smooth  work  with  it  if  you 
know  how,  although  smoothing  and  levelling  is  the  special 
work  of  the  chisel.  The  gouge,  however,  is  used  for  all 
sorts  of  curves  and  hollows,  and  though  the  actual  point 
will  only  turn  a  groove  if  held  still,  the  side  of  the  cutting 
part  will,  if  the  tool  is  steadily  advanced,  turn  very  fair 
surfaces  indeed.  I  strongly  advise  practice  with  this  tool 
before  attempting  to  use  any  other.  Your  early  work  is  of 
little  importance,  and  you  may  make  up  your  mind  to  cut 
several  pieces  into  shavings  and  chips  without  very  grand 
success,  even  though  you  use  a  chisel ;  so  I  repeat,  stick  to 
the  gouge  only  for  some  time,  until  you  can  use  it  towards 
left  or  right,  and  with  either  hand  grasping  the  handle. 

With  the  chisel,  far  more  care  is  required  than  with  the 
last  named.  It  is  altogether  a  more  diffirnlt  tool  to  use. 


166  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

Its  position  may  be  described  as  follows,  but  practice  alone 
will  render  its  use  easy.  Lay  it  first  flat  on  the  rest  as  you 
would  the  gouge,  and  let  it  point  upwards  at  a  similar 
angle,  until  it  also  is  in  the  position  the  gouge  would  take, 
ready  to  cut  the  piece  of  wood  in  the  lathe,  already  turned 
to  the  cylindrical  form  by  the  latter  tool.  You  will  find 
one  point  or  angle  of  the  edge,  the  sharpest,  reach  the  wood 
before  the  other,  and  will  see  at  once  that  this  would  be 
liable  to  catch  in,  if  the  lathe  were  in  motion — and  so  it 
would.  I  shall  suppose  that  this  sharpest  angle  is  on  the 
right-hand  side  as  it  lies  flat  on  the  rest,  and  against  the 
wood.  Raise  that  angle  so  that  the  tool  lies  a  little  edge- 
wise on  the  rest  instead  of  quite  flat,  when  the  angle  of  the 
tool  that  is  highest  on  the  wood  will  be  also  raised  off  it ; 
the  lower  angle  and  remainder  of  the  edge  still  being  in 
contact  with  it,  This  is  its  proper  position,  with  the  upper 
angle  out  of  contact  with  the  work.  You  may  turn  it  over 
BO  that  the  keenest  angle  is  the  lower  one,  but  then  you 
must  raise  the  other,  which  is  now  the  upper  one,  for  under 
no  circumstances  must  the  one  that  is  uppermost  touch  the 
wood.  The  chisel,  therefore,  never  lies  flat  on  the  rest  or 
on  the  work,  but  always  slightly  raised  to  clear  the  upper 
point,  and  in  this  position  you  have  to  keep  it,  making  it 
descend  into  hollows,  and  rise  over  mouldings,  and  cut 
level  places,  almost  without  stopping  an  instant ;  and  for 
wood,  especially  soft  wood,  the  lathe  is  always  itself  to  be 


HAND-TURNING  IN  WOOD,  167 


run  at  a  very  high  speed,  by  putting  the  cord  on  the  largest 
part  of  the  fly-wheel  and  smallest  part  of  the  pulley. 

To  return  to  the  supposed  tool-handle.  Having  turned  a 
cylinder,  begin  at  the  ferule,  which  you  must  cut  off  a 
brass  or  iron  tube,  or,  which  is  easier,  buy  by  the  dozen  or 
by  the  pound  ready  cut.  You  will  want  them  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  for  your  largest  tools,  and  about  three-eighths 
for  the  smallest,  with  some  of  half  an  inch,  and  you  can 
then  bore  your  tool-rack  exactly  true  with  centrebits  of 
these  sizes.  Turn  the  place  down  for  the  ferule,  and  take 
care  that  you  make  a  tight  fit.  Gauge  with  the  callipers 
first  of  all,  and  turn  almost  to  size,  then  try  it  on  once  or 
twice  until  it  fits  exactly. 

If  you  use  the  cross-chuck,  you  have  this  one  great 
advantage — you  can  take  out  your  work  to  put  on  the 
ferule,  and  replace  it  exactly  as  it  was  before,  and  it  will 
continue  to  run  true.  As,  however,  the  piece  in  the  present 
case  is  but  partially  turned,  it  can  be  replaced  with 
sufficient  accuracy  upon  the  prong-chuck,  especially  if  you 
mark  the  side  of  the  chuck,  and  of  the  piece  of  wood,  and 
take  care  to  replace  them  in  the  same  relative  position. 
You  must  now  try  with  gouge  and  chisel  to  imitate  the 
pattern  handle,  remembering  always  to  work  downwards 
from  right  aud  left  into  the  various  hollows — (you  cannot 
cut  the  fibres  neatly  if  you  try  to  go  up-hill) ;  and  where 
die  two  cuts  meet  in  the  hollows,  you  must  do  your  best  not 


1 68  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


to  leave  the  least  ridge  or  mark.  You  will  be  sure  to  need 
a  little  glasscloth  to  finish  off  your  work,  but  do  without  it 
as  much  as  possible,  because  it  spoils  the  shape  of  mould- 
ings, rubbing  off  the  sharp  angles,  which  in  many  cases  add 
beauty  to  the  work.  If  the  piece  of  wood  is  longer  than 
necessary,  cut  it  off  with  the  chisel.  In  any  case,  you 
must  cut  off  a  piece  at  the  chuck  end ;  and  this  being  the 
end  of  the  handle  which  you  will  hold  in  your  hand,  the 
ferule  being  at  the  end  next  to  the  back  poppit,  you  will 
cut  it  off  neatly  with  the  chisel  in  finishing  it  to  the 
required  shape. 

You  would  hardly  suppose  it  possible  to  turn  off  the  end 
of  a  piece  squarely  and  accurately  with  the  gouge,  but  it  is 
a  good  tool  for  the  purpose.  You  must  lay  it  on  its  side 
upon  the  rest,  so  that  its  back  or  bevel  rests  flat  against 
the  end  of  the  piece  from  which  the  superfluous  wood  is  to 
be  taken  ;  the  edge  or  point  of  the  tool  is  then  allowed  to 
cut  the  work  by  a  slight  movement  of  the  handle.  You 
can  only  do  it  in  this  way,  with  the  bevel  against  the  piece 
from  which  the  cut  is  to  be  taken.  Turned  over  to  its 
usual  position,  it  will  hitch  in  and  spoil  the  work  in  a 
moment.  In  the  same  way  you  can  face  up  a  bread-platter 
or  similar  flat  work;  but  such  articles  as  these  are  not 
mounted  between  centres,  but  screwed  upon  the  taper 
screw-chuck  or  the  flat  plate  with  the  screw-holes,  so  that 
you  can  get  to  the  face  of  them.  At  first,  however,  until  the 


HAND-TURNING  IN  WOOD.  169 


work  gets  tolerably  level,  you  may  bring  up  the  back-centre, 
which  will  prevent  the  taper  screw  of  the  chuck  from  being 
accidentally  bent;  and  when  all  the  rough  part  is  cut 
away,  and  the  rim  turned  down,  you  can  remove  the  back- 
centre  to  finish  the  facing  up.  In  this  work,  however,  the 
back  and  face  do  not  need  much  turning,  because  the 
platter  is  turned  from  plank  wood,  planed  up  truly  on  each 
Bide,  and  cut  roughly  into  the  form  of  a  circle.  If  accur- 
ately planed,  it  will  run  true  at  once,  and  the  small  amount 
of  facing  may  be  done  with  the  gouge  held  as  directed. 
Afterwards  it  may  be  necessary  to  take  a  light  scrape  with 
a  carpenter's  chisel,  which  answers  well  for  this.  Then 
finish  up  with  glass  or  sand  paper.  Take  care  to  make  a 
neat  moulding  to  the  edge,  which  will  be  about  an  inch 
thick,  and  will  therefore  look  very  heavy  unless  turned  off 
so  as  to  thin  it  down.  A  platter  is  a  very  good  and  useful 
work  for  a  beginner. 

In  turning  a  platter  you  will  certainly  learn  one  lesson 
in  mechanics.  You  will  find  that  it  is  very  hard  work  to 
turn  anything  that  is  larger  than  the  pulley  of  your  lathe, 
and  you  will  only  be  able  to  take  a  very  light  cut.  Prob- 
ably you  will  find  it  the  easiest  plan  to  set  the  lathe  in 
rapid  movement,  and  apply  the  turning-tool  only  for  an 
instant,  and  then  to  remove  it  until  the  work  has  recovered 
its  impetus,  thus  cutting  it,  as  it  were,  by  repeated  brief 
applications  of  the  tool,  instead  of  by  one  continuous  cut 


1 70  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


I  do  not  mean  that  the  tool  is  to  be  removed  from  the  rest, 
but  only  eased  off  for  a  second  from  the  work.  If  the 
latter  is  very  large,  arid  the  pulley  on  the  mandrel  much 
less  in  size,  you  can  only  work  in  this  way,  finishing  with  a 
very  light  cut.  There  is  a  tool  for  the  face  of  such  flat 
works,  called  a  broad.  It  is  like  a  broad  chisel  with  the  end 
turned  up  at  right  angles  to  the  side,  only  the  edge  is  a 
bevelled  one  and  thick.  They  work  well  in  hands  accus- 
tomed to  them,  but  the  gouge  and  chisel  are  sufficient  for 
your  present  need. 

I  shall  sketch  here  (Fig.  49)  one  or  two  articles  not  re- 
quiring to  be  much  hollowed  out,  which  will  help  you  to 
decide  upon  such  work  as  is  suitable  to  a  young  mechanic 
desiring,  by  steady  practice  and  application,  to  become  a 
proficient  at  the  lathe,  and  as  soft-wood  turning  will 
teach  you  more  than  that  in  hard  wood,  I  shall  direct 
all  the  following  to  be  made  of  it  by  gouge  and  chisel 
alone. 

These  examples  are  not  given  as  specimens  of  the  rich 
work  which  can  be  done  in  the  lathe,  but  as  easy  examples 
of  elementary  turning.  No.  1  is  a  stand  for  an  urn  or  hot 
water  jug,  and  a  slight  recess  may  be  made  in  the  upper 
surface,  in  which  a  piece  of  cloth,  or  carpet,  or  oilcloth  can 
be  glued,  which  will  make  a  neat  finish.  No.  2  is  a  bread- 
platter,  showing  how  a  little  neat  moulding  takes  away  the 
clumsy  appearance  of  the  thick  board  necessary  for  this 


HAND-TURNING  IN  WOOD.  171 


172  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


purpose.  No.  3  is  a  candlestick.  The  lower  part  or  stand 
is  to  be  turned  from  a  separate  piece  of  thick  board  screwed 
upon  the  taper-screw  chuck.  While  it  is  in  the  lathe,  the 
hole  must  be  made  in  the  centre  (or  marked,  if  the  piece  is 
not  very  thick)  by  holding  a  pointed  tool  a  little  on  one 
side  of  the  centre,  so  as  to  describe  a  circle  of  the  requisite 
size.  Into  this  will  be  fitted  a  tenon,  fig.  3  B,  which  is 
turned  on  the  pedestal,  and  which  is  to  be  glued  into  its 
place.  By  and  by  you  will  learn  how  to  cut  a  screw  upon 
such  a  tenon,  which  is  a  far  more  satisfactory  method  of 
proceeding ;  at  present  glue  will  answer  just  as  well.  You 
can  make  the  upper  part  separate,  forming  the  junction  at 
the  line  C  (Fig.  49,  No.  3),  if  you  prefer  it,  or  if  your  wood 
is  not  long  enough ;  but  as  you  will  not  hollow  out  the  top, 
you  may  as  well  let  it  be  cut  out  of  one  piece  with  the 
pedestal.  Turn  the  top  quite  level,  drive  in  a  piece  of 
stout  wire,  and  point  the  end  of  it.  Cut  out  a  round  piece 
of  tin  to  fit,  and  make  a  hole  in  the  middle  of  it  to  let  the 
wire  through ;  drop  it  over  the  point,  and  let  it  rest  on  the 
candlestick;  a  wax  candle  can  be  spiked  upon  the  wire, 
and  will  stand  firm. 

Figs.  7  and  8  are  drawings  of  tool-handles.  These  are 
the  best  shape  to  grasp  in  the  hand,  and  they  look  neat 
in  the  tool-rack.  Tool-handles  with  a  number  of  mould- 
ing?, are  not  only  absurd,  but  are  uncomfortable  to  hold, 
and  not  at  all  suited  to  their  intended  purpose.  9  and  10 


HAND-TURNING  IN  WOOD.  173 


are  other  forms  of  mouldings,  and  are  given  merely  to  show 
how  angular  and  rounded  forms  should  be  combined  to 
produce  a  good  effect.  If  these  were  to  be  made  in  hard 
wood,  they  might  be  turned  with  beading  and  moulding 
tools  similar  to  those  at  A,  B,  C,  D  of  this  figure ;  such 
tools  are  bevelled  only  on  one  side,  and  being  held  flat  upon 
the  rest,  cut  the  curves  and  hollows  rapidly,  and  clean. 
Sometimes  a  number  of  these  are  arranged  side  by  side,  sci 
as  together  to  make  up  the  outline  of  the  intended  mould- 
ing, and  being  held  in  position  by  a  handle  designed  for  the 
purpose,  are  presented  all  at  once  to  the  work  as  it  revolves. 
In  other  cases,  a  flat  plate  of  steel  is  filed  into  shape,  and 
bevelled  to  form  a  compound  moulding  tool.  Of  course, 
such  contrivances  greatly  help  the  turner,  especially  if  he 
has  to  turn  a  number  of  articles  of  exactly  the  same  pat- 
tern, such  as  the  pawns  of  a  set  of  chessmen,  or  a  set  of 
draughtsmen;  but  none  of  these  tools  answer  upon  soft 
wood,  because,  as  already  explained,  tools  which  have  to  be 
held  horizontally  will  cut  and  tear  up  the  fibres  of  all 
woods  that  are  not  very  hard  and  compact  in  grain. 

Fig.  6  is  a  profile  of  a  draughtsman,  and  fig.  6  B  shows 
how  they  ought  to  be  made,  but  for  this  you  cannot  use 
soft  wood,  and  had  better  make  them  of  box  and  ebony,  or 
holly  and  ebony — (and,  by  and  by,  of  black-wood  and 
ivory).  A  cylinder  is  first  turned,  then  marked  off  as  shown 
with  grooves  cut  by  a  parting-tool.  The  pieces  are  then 


174  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


separated  with  a  fine  saw,  and  a  chuck  is  hollowed  out  to 
fit  them  so  that  each  can  be  readily  turned  upon  the  face. 
The  desired  mouldings  having  been  made  on  one  side,  the 
disc  is  turned  over  in  the  chuck,  and  the  other  side  operated 
upon  in  the  same  manner. 

It  is  quite  possible,  you  must  understand,  to  cut  these 
out  of  soft  wood,  even  pine  or  deal.  We  often  see  boxes  of 
toys,  children's  wooden  plates  and  cups,  turned  very  neatly 
of  this  material ;  but  it  is  not  worth  while  to  use  it  if  you 
can  obtain  boxwood.  Moreover,  box  can  be  stained  black  to 
imitate  ebony,  and  is  very  often  made  to  serve  instead  of  it. 

Figs.  4  and  5  are  ring-stands  for  the  toilette-table — very 
useful  presents  these  to  mothers,  sisters,  and,  last  but  not 
least,  lady  cousins,  and  other  young  ladies  too,  perhaps,  who 
are  not  cousins.  These  can  be  made  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
and  give  great  scope  for  the  exercise  of  your  powers  of 
design.  The  first  is  a  simple  pedestal  on  a  stand,  turned 
quite  smooth  in  an  elegant  and  simple  curve.  The  stand 
is  also  made  without  elaborate  mouldings,  giving  altogether 
a  chaste  and  elegant  appearance  to  the  design.  The  ex- 
tremity is  tipped  with  ivory,  and  an  ivory  ring  surrounds 
the  bottom  of  the  pedestal.  If  this  is  made  in  plain  deal, 
and  thoroughly  well  finished  and  varnished,  it  will  look 
very  well.  The  nicest  soft  English  wood,  however,  for  this 
is  certainly  yew,  some  of  which  is  beautifully  fine  in  grain ; 
and  as  it  will  take  an  excellent  polish,  it  always  looks 


HAND-  TURNING  IN  WO OD.  175 

well;  moreover,  it  can  be  turned  entirely  with  gouge  and 
chisel. 

This  ring-stand  will  be  made  in  two  parts ;  the  pedestal 
being  separately  turned  at  one  end,  a  tenon  will  have  to  be 
made  as  in  the  case  of  the  candlestick,  and  just  above  it 
the  wood  is  to  be  turned  off  a  little  as  if  you  were  going  to 
make  a  larger  tenon.  Over  this  a  ring  of  ivory  may  be 
slipped  and  glued  on,  and  the  two  can  then  be  turned 
together.  A  carpenter's  chisel  will  do  for  the  ivory,  which 
will  be  scraped  into  form  by  it.  It  may  be  polished  with 
a  little  chalk  on  a  moist  rag  or  flannel.  You  can  buy  odds 
and  ends  of  ivory  from  the  turners  in  rings  and  solid 
pieces,  which  will  come  in  for  all  sorts  of  decorations,  and 
you  should  save  all  old  handles  of  knives,  tooth-brushes, 
and  such  like,  for  a  similar  purpose.  Both  ivory  and  bone 
smell  very  disagreeably  when  in  process  of  being  turned. 
To  tip  such  articles  with  ivory,  you  can  drill  a  small  hole 
in  the  top  of  the  pedestal  with  great  care,  and  fit  the  ivory 
after  being  turned  into  it;  or  you  can,  if  the  work  is 
larger,  bore  the  ivory  and  slip  it  on  the  wood ; — much 
depends  upon  the  size  and  nature  of  the  work. 

The  second  ring-stand  is  of  rather  more  elaborate  construc- 
tion. The  baskets  are  made  of  little  turned  pedestals  fitted 
into  a  round  piece  of  wood  to  form  the  bottom,  and  into  a 
ring  which  makes  the  rim.  Baskets  of  this  form  (evon 
apart  from  the  ring-stand)  are  very  neat  and  useful 


I76  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


It  is  very  easy  to  turn  rings  of  any  size.  Mount  a  piece 
of  board  in  the  lathe  on  the  taper  screw  chuck — it  need  not 
even  be  cut  to  a  round  form ;  then  determine  the  size  of 
the  proposed  ring,  and,  holding  a  parting-tool  upon  the 
rest  turned  round  to  face  the  work,  mark  two  circles, 
and  deepen  the  cuts,  until  the  ring  falls  off.  Take  care 
that  the  outer  one  is  cut  through  first.  The  ring  thus  cut 
may  be  afterwards  placed  upon  a  cylinder  turned  to  fit  it, 
and  finished  upon  the  outside,  and  then  placed  inside  a 
chuck  of  wood  bored  out  to  suit  the  work,  and  neatly 
rounded  off  upon  the  interior  surface.  Of  course,  if  you 
have  to  make  rings  of  bone  or  ivory  which  are  already 
hollow,  you  can  at  once  run  a  mandrel  or  spindle  of  wood 
or  metal  through  them  and  subject  them  to  the  various 
operations  required. 

Mandrels,  or  tapered  cylinders  of  brass  or  iron,  fitted  as 
chucks  to  the  mandrel  of  the  lathe,  are  sold  on  purpose  for 
this  work,  but  a  wooden  rod  answers  just  as  well,  and  costs 
nothing.  Turn  such  a  rod  a  little  tapering,  and  take  care 
not  to  drive  the  work  too  far  upon  it,  because,  although  at 
first  you  can  safely  drive  it  on  very  tightly,  if  it  is  of  ivory  or 
bone,  you  will  frequently  find  your  ring  suddenly  split  and 
open  when  its  thickness  has  been  reduced  to  the  required 
standard.  If  a  number  of  equal  rings  are  required,  it  i? 
the  best  plan  to  turn  a  hollow  cylinder  and  then  saw  off 
the  rings  as  you  are  directed  to  saw  off  the  draughts- 


HAND-TURNING  IN  WOOD.  177 

men.  They  will,  of  course,  have  to  be  finished  in  a 
chuck. 

If  you  look  round  any  fancy  warehouse  in  which  Swiss 
carvings  are  sold,  you  will  see  how  beautifully  soft  white 
pine  can  be  worked  in  the  lathe  by  keen  tools  and  clever 
hands.  In  Tunbridge,  too,  many  thousands  of  soft-wood 
articles  are  manufactured  yearly,  some  plain  and  merely 
varnished,  and  some  curiously  inlaid  with  coloured  woods, 
so  that  you  need  not  despise  such  materials  as  willow  and 
sycamore  and  the  various  pine  woods,  which  are  all  capable 
of  being  made  into  pretty  articles  of  one  kind  or  another. 
The  varnish,  however,  for  these  is  such  as  to  coat  them 
with  a  glassy  layer  which  does  not  sink  into  the  wood. 
Common  rosin  dissolved  in  turpentine  or  in  linseed  oil, 
kept  on  the  hob  so  as  to  get  warm,  answers  well  for  these 
deal  articles,  and  is  extensively  used  where  the  slight  tinge 
of  yellow  is  not  considered  important.  There  are  many 
other  much  paler  varnishes  for  works  of  greater  value,  or 
where  the  white  wood  is  to  be  carefully  preserved.  Any  of 
these  can  be  had  at  oil  and  colour  shops. 

You  -will  certainly  find  a  difficulty  in  turning  all  exactly 
alike  the  little  pillars  of  these  baskets.  You  should  turn 
several  at  once  out  of  the  same  piece,  separating  them 
afterwards.  Thus  your  pattern  will  always  be  close  to  the 
half-executed  copy,  which  will  somewhat  assist  you.  Do 
your  best  in  this  respect,  but  be  specially  careful,  at  any 


THE   YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


Fig.  60. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  BACK-STAY.  179 

rate,  to  make  all  exactly  the  same  length.     One  pillar  is 
shown  separate,  but  you  can  design  a  pattern  for  yourself. 

Begin  by  turning  a  long  cylinder ;  then  set  off  the 
respective  lengths  of  the  pillars.  Turn  one  complete  as  a 
pattern,  and  set  the  callipers  to  the  largest  part  of  it. 
Then  go  to  work  upon  a  second,  using  callipers  freely  at 
all  parts  of  it.  As  these  pillars  will  all  be  slender,  you 
will  be  in  great  danger  of  breaking  them;  therefore  use 
your  tools  lightly,  taking  only  a  very  slight  cut.  But  with 
all  your  care  you  will  find  it  difficult  to  turn  a  row  of  more 
than  two  or  three  of  the  size  wanted  for  such  little  baskets. 
I  shall  therefore  show  you  how  to  make  a  support  to  fit  at 
the  back  of  the  bar  you  are  at  work  upon  to  support  it 
against  the  pressure  of  the  tool. 

Fig.  50  gives  a  representation  of  one  or  two  such  sup- 
ports, which  are  often  required  in  turning.  The  first  is  the 
most  simple,  and  is  the  one  most  generally  in  use,  because 
easy  to  make  and  to  apply,  and  it  answers  tolerably  well. 
A  is  merely  a  piece  of  wood,  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
thick,  cut  as  shown.  This  is  stood  up  between  the  lathe-beds, 
like  C,  and  fastened  with  a  wedge  before  and  behind.  It 
allows  the  work  in  the  lathe  to  revolve  in  the  notch  which 
is  cut  in  it,  as  is  evident  from  the  drawing.  One,  two,  or 
more  such  may  be  used  if  necessary.  They  must  be  carefully 
adjusted,  so  as  nut  to  bend  the  piece  which  is  to  be  turned, 
and  which  is  to  be  just  supported,  but  no  more.  Where 


i So  7 HE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

the  back-stay,  as  this  contrivance  is  called,  comes  in  contact 
with  the  work,  the  latter  is  to  be  left  of  the  size  it  was  when 
this  was  adjusted  to  it  as  long  as  possible.  It  must  then 
be  shifted  a  little,  and  that  part  which  formerly  rested 
against  it  finished. 

B  is  another  simple  form  of  back-stay,  capable  of  nice* 
adjustment.  The  foot  is  that  of  a  common  rest,  but  if  you 
have  not  a  spare  one,  any  wooden  support  is  quite  as  good. 
Into  this  fits  a  turned  part  of  the  upright  x  y, — the  upper 
part,  y,  of  this  being  planed  flat.  Neither  should  be  of  deal ; 
ash  or  elm  is  preferable.  Thus  the  part  x  y  can  be  raised 
and  lowered  at  pleasure  in  the  rest-socket.  The  top  part 
is  made  of  a  half-inch  board,  about  2  or  2|  inches  wide ; 
a  slit  is  cut  in  it,  and  it  is  fastened  to  x  y  by  a  short  bolt 
and  nut.  Thus  it  is  easy  to  raise  and  lower  the  end  of  this 
part,  and  to  put  it  nearer  to,  or  farther  from,  the  work  in 
the  lathe,  against  which  it  can  be  adjusted  with  great 
nicety.  Although  there  are  several  forms  of  back-stay,  of 
more  or  less  complicated  construction,  I  know  of  none  more 
generally  serviceable  than  this  last,  which  the  young 
mechanic  can  make  for  himself.  The  notch  should  be 
lubricated  with  soap,  or,  if  the  blackness  is  not  of  import- 
ance (as  when  this  part,  which  rotates  in  the  notch,  has 
finally  to  be  cut  away),  with  a  mixture  of  soap  and  black- 
lead.  This,  remember,  is  always  to  be  applied  to  wooden 
surfaces  that  are  to  work  easily  upon  each  other. 


THE  CONE-PLATE.  181 

It  will  sometimes  happen  that  you  require  to  "bore  a  hole 
through  a  long  piece  of  wood,  as  would  be  the  case  in 
making  a  wooden  pipe,  flute,  bodkin-case,  and  many  similar 
articles.  To  hold  these  in  a  chuck  only  would  be  often 
impossible,  because  the  hole  in  the  chuck  would  have  to  be 
as  deep  at  least  as  half  the  length  of  the  piece  to  be 
bored. 

For  this  kind  of  work,  therefore,  and  for  turning  up  a 
point  on  the  end  of  a  cylinder  of  iron  or  steel,  like  that  of 
your  back  poppit,  the  following  contrivance  is  used,  which 
is  called  a  boring-collar  or  cone-plate.  It  is  represented  in 
Fig.  50,  D  and  E.  This  consists  of  a  circular  plate  of 
metal,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  turning  upon  a  large 
screw  or  pivot  at  its  centre,  by  which  pivot  it  is  attached  to 
a  short  poppit  head,  fitting  between  the  bearers  of  the  lathe 
as  usual.  There  are  six  or  eight  conical  holes  bored  round 
the  circular  plate,  each  of  a  different  size ;  and  these  are  so 
arranged  as  to  height,  or  distance  from  the  centre,  that  the 
top  one  (being  in  a  perpendicular  line  passing  through  its 
centre  and  that  of  the  bolt)  is  exactly  as  high  as  the  axis 
of  the  mandrel.  Thus,  if  it  is  clamped  in  that  position, 
with  the  largest  side  of  the  conical  holes  next  the  mandrel, 
a  piece  of  wood  might  be  held  at  one  end  in  a  chuck,  while 
the  other  might  rest  in  such  hole  as  was  best  suited  to  its 
size,  not  actually  passing  through  it,  but  resting  in  the 
inside  of  the  conical  hole,  in  which  it  would  rotate  almost 


i82  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

as  freely  and  as  truly  as  if  it  were  supported  by  the  ordin- 
ary point  of  the  back  poppit. 

Sometimes  it  may  be  preferred  to  allow  the  end  of  such  a 
piece  of  work  to  project  through  the  cone-plate,  a  collar 
being  turned  on  it  to  prevent  it  from  going  too  far.  A 
tool-handle,  for  instance,  of  the  pattern  before  given,  may 
be  beautifully  bored  in  Ihe  lathe  by  allowing  the  ferule  to 
rotate  in  one  of  the  holes  of  the  cone-plate,  the  shoulder 
behind  preventing  it  from  going  too  far.  The  rest  is 
brought  round  in  front  of  the  end  of  the  handle,  and  a  hole 
bored  by  a  drill  for  wood ;  or,  the  point  of  a  drill  is  brought 
against  it,  while  the  other  end  (having  had  a  slight  hole 
made  by  a  centre-punch  for  the  purpose)  is  allowed  to 
centre  itself  on  the  point  of  the  back  poppit.  The  screw  of 
the  latter  is  then  advanced,  and  the  drill  being  prevented 
from  itself  revolving  either  by  being  grasped  by  the  hand 
or  a  vice,  a  beautifully  straight  and  even  hole  is  rapidly 
made. 

Fig.  50,  F,  shows  the  position  of  the  various  pieces. 
The  drill  is  here  kept  from  rotating  by  a  small  spanner \  the 
handle  of  which  comes  against  the  bed  of  the  lathe.  A 
great  deal  of  work,  both  in  wood  and  metal,  is  always 
drilled  in  this  way. 

For  wood,  a  small  nose-bit,  or  auger-bit,  or  one  of  the 
American  twist-drills,  can  be  used,  and  this  may  be  suc- 
ceeded by  a  larger,  until  the  hole  will  allow  of  the  intro- 


THE  CONE-PLATE.  183 

d action  of  a  finishing- tool  of  some  kind,  held  in  the  hand. 
Of  course  the  latter  is  not  necessary  in  boring  out  handles 
for  the  tang  of  a  tool,  but  only  in  turning  boxes  for  pencils, 
needles,  or  other  articles,  which  require  to  be  neatly  finished 
inside  as  well  as  out ;  all  these  are  to  be  bored  before  the 
work  is  cut  free  from  the  superfluous  wood  out  of  which  it 
was  turned.  You  can  even  use  the  cross-chuck  for  this 
work. 

It  matters  little,  when  using  the  cone-plate,  whether  you 
finish  the  turning  of  the  outside  before  or  after  the  boring 
is  done.  Very  generally  the  box  or  other  article  is  bored 
first,  quite  in  its  rough  state,  except  that  a  short  piece  is 
turned  down  to  fit  into  a  hole  of  the  cone-plate ;  and, 
keeping  the  latter  in  its  place  all  the  while,  the  wood  is 
turned  down  and  polished  before  removing  it  from  the 
lathe.  Sometimes,  especially  with  metal,  which  is  in  no 
danger  of  splitting,  the  cone-plate  is  removed  as  soon  as 
the  hole  has  been  made  and  replaced  by  the  back-centre, 
the  point  of  which,  entering  the  hole,  retains  the  work  in 
its  place  while  the  outside  is  being  fashioned.  This  of 
course  insures  the  exterior  surface  being  exactly  concentric 
with  the  inside,  which  is  often  absolutely  necessary  in  parts 
of  machinery ;  but  if  wooden  articles  are  finished  in  this 
way,  there  is  great  danger  of  their  being  split  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  back-centre  as  the  work  grows  thinner  and 
thinner  under  the  action  of  the  tools.  Moi  cover,  it  must 


JHE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


be  remembered  that  the  back-centre,  being  itself  of  a 
conical  form,  will  injure  the  form  of  the  hole  in  metal  bj 
making  it  wider  at  the  mouth  if  used  in  this  way,  and 
sometimes  this  may  be  of  importance. 

There  is  a  fauH  in  the  cone-plate  which  boys  will  under- 
stand, and  men,  too,  I  imagine.  It  costs  money!  Therefore 
I  shall  now  show  you  how  to  make  a  substitute,  \vhich  will 
cost  something  under  a  shilling,  if  you  do  not  mind  a  little 
trouble  ;  but,  if  you  do,  you  will  never  make  a  good  work- 
man, nor  will  you  be  good  for  much,  I  fear,  in  any  way !  A 
metal  cone-plate  for  a  5-inch  lathe  costs  £2  at  least. 

I  shall  suppose  you  want  a  cone-plate  in  which  to 
bore  your  tool-handles,  for  it  is  not  easy  to  do  this  with 
a  gimlet,  so  that  the  tools,  when  inserted,  shall  stand 
straight  in  their  handles.  If  you  have  a  5-inch  centre 
lathe,  i.e.,  a  lathe  in  which  the  central  line  or  axis  of 
the  mandrel  is  5  inches  from  the  lathe-bed  (in  which 
case  you  can  turn  anything  nearly  10  inches  in  diameter), 
cut  out  of  a  piece  of  beech,  3  inches  thick,  a  short 
poppit  3-^  inches  high,  of  some  such  shape  as  seen  in  the 
fig.  G;  and  in  the  lower  part  (which  must  be  cut  to  fit 
between  the  lathe-bearers,  and  must  be  made  square  at  the 
sides  and  true,  so  that  the  whole  will  stand  squarely  across 
the  lathe-bed),  either  cut  a  mortice,  a,  for  a  wedge,  or  bore 
a  hole  for  a  screw,  which  must  have  a  plate  and  nut  to  fasten 
under  the  bed  like  other  poppits.  Near  the  top,  and  exactly 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A   CONE-PLATE.  185 

in  the  centre,  bore  a  hole  to  receive  the  bolt  K,  similar  to 
that  in  the  metal  cone-plate  already  described,  and  which 
will  be  tightened  by  a  nut  at  the  back.  This  supplies  the 
place  of  the  short  iron  poppit,  and  now  you  have  to  con- 
trive something  to  replace  the  circular  plate  of  holes.  Cut 
two  or  three  strips  of  any  tolerably  hard  wood,  H  (beech 
will  answer  very  well),  6  inches  long,  half  aii  inch  thick, 
and  2  inches  wide.  Cut  in  these  a  slot  and  a  round  hole, 
which  must  be  carefully  made  with  a  centrebit.  This  hole 
is  to  be  for  one  of  those  in  the  usual  round  plate,  so  be 
careful  in  making  it.  Work  thus:  Plane  up  the  piece 
from  wood  rather  more  than  the  half  inch  required ;  draw  a 
line  exactly  down  the  middle  of  it  on  both  sides  &•,/; 
choose  a  centrebit  of  the  size  you  require  ;  put  the  point 
upon  this  line,  about  \\  inches  or  more,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  required  hole,  and  bore  steadily  a  little  way 
into  the  wood.  Then  turn  it  over,  measure  carefully  so  as 
to  get  the  precise  spot  right,  and  finish  from  that  side.  If 
the  centrebit  is  sharp,  and  the  wood  sound,  you  will  now 
have  a  neat  round  hole.  Let  the  slot  be  also  cut  from  both 
sides  of  the  piece  of  wood  with  a  sharp  chisel,  taking  care 
that  the  centre  of  it  agrees  with  the  line  that  you  made  for 
a  guide. 

Three  or  four  of  these  should  be  made,  each  with  a  dif- 
ferent sized  hole,  or  more  if  required  ;  but  you  can  add  new 
ones  at  any  time.  The  bolt,  K,  is  to  be  made  with  a  larg« 


t86  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

head  flat  on  the  under  side,  and  the  upper  part,  above  the 
screw,  is  to  be  square  for  three-eighths  of  an  inch,  and  the 
slot  in  the  pieces  of  wood  must  just  fit  this  squared  part 
Now,  as  this  is  three-eighths  only,  and  the  thickness  of  the 
wood  is  four-eighths  or  half  an  inch,  it  is  plain  that  the 
nut  will  draw,  and  the  head  of  the  screw  clamp  this  tightly. 
You  can,  if  you  like,  however,  make  the  hole  in  the  poppit 
square  also,  and  then  let  the  squared  part  of  the  screw  be 
long  enough  to  reach  almost  entirely  through  both  pieces. 
Then  slip  a  washer  (an  iron  plate  with  a  hole  in  it  like  L) 
over  the  end  of  the  screw,  and  fix  all  with  the  nut.  Thus 
you  have  a  boring  collar  with  one  hole,  and  this  you  can 
raise  or  lower  the  length  of  the  slot  so  as  to  get  it  exactly 
the  right  height,  and  when  it  is  so  arranged,  one  turn  of 
the  nut  at  the  back  will  fix  it. 

This  you  will  find  a  very  simple  form  of  boring-collar, 
easy  to  make,  and  of  practical  use.  If  you  really  take  all 
the  care  you  can,  and  follow  the  directions  I  have  given,  I 
do  not  see  how  you  can  possibly  fail  in  constructing  one. 
You  should  have  a  sliding-plate  with  a  hole  for  each  size 
of  tool-handle  ferule  used,  as  you  will  frequently  be  making 
these. 

HOLLOWING  OUT  WORK. 

As  I  have  spoken  of  boring,  I  will  go  on  to  treat  now  of 
the  general  practice  of  hollowing  out  chucks  and  boxes, 
and  such  like.  If  this  is  to  be  done  in  soft  wood,  such  aa 


HOLLOWING  OUT  WORK.  187 

willow,  no  tool  will  answer  so  well  as  the  hook-tools,  of 
which  I  have  given  drawings.  But  these  are  very  difficult 
indeed  to  use,  owing  to  their  tendency  to  catch  in,  or  take 
suddenly  a  deeper  cut  than  was  intended.  Nothing  but 
practice  will  teach  exactly  how  to  use  these  tools ;  but  then, 
when  the  difficulty  of  so  doing  is  once  mastered,  nothing 
can  be  more  rapid  or  more  satisfactory  than  the  work 
which  they  will  do.  Small  bowls  are  hollowed  almost 
instantaneously  by  their  means  in  skilled  hands ;  whereas, 
with  other  tools,  it  becomes  not  only  a  tedious  job,  but  il 
it  is  done  at  all,  it  is  but  roughly,  the  wood  having  to  be 
rather  scraped  out  than  cut.  Using,  however,  the  back  of 
the  gouge  as  explained  before,  in  the  directions  given  for 
squaring  up  the  end  of  a  cylinder  with  this  tool,  it  is? 
possible  to  hollow  out  soft  wood  with  it,  but  not  very 
satisfactorily.  In  any  case,  other  tools  (generally  a  car- 
penter's chisel)  must  be  used  to  work  into  the  angle  which 
neither  the  gouge  nor  hook-tool  can,  of  course,  reach. 
Hence  it  is  generally  so  much  easier  to  cut  out  boxes  and 
such  like  articles  in  box  or  hard  wood,  that  this  is  nearly 
always  used  by  amateurs. 

The  ordinary  way  to  turn  a  box  is  as  follows : — Prepare  the 
wood  as  usual,  turning  it  cylindrical,  using  any  chuck  you 
please  for  this  work ;  cut  off  with  the  parting-tool  rather 
more  than  the  box  and  its  cover  together  will  require,  and 
drive  the  piece  thus  separated  into  a  cup-chuck.  [You 


1 88  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

may,  if  you  prefer  it,  screw  upon  the  nose  of  the  mandrel, 
or  upon  the  taper  screw-chuck,  the  rough  piece  of  the 
proper  length,  instead  of  first  turning  a  cylinder  to  cut 
from.  If  you  have  several  boxes  to  make  of  one  size,  the 
cylinder  method  is  to  be  preferred.]  Turn  it  up  again 
quite  true,  for  although  it  was  correct  before  you  cut  it  off, 
it  will  not  be  so  now.  Square  up  the  end,  and  turning 
round  the  rest  so  as  to  stand  across  the  face  of  the  wood, 
begin  to  hollow  out  the  cover.  Use  either  the  round  end  or 
pointed  tool  at  first,  and  then  a  carpenter's  chisel  or  flat 
tool  to  finish.  Be  very  careful  that  the  sides  (I  must  call 
it  by  this  name,  although  a  circle  has  not  more  sides  than  a 
plum-pudding)  are  turned  square  to  the  bottom,  or  else, 
when  the  cover  is  put  on,  it  will  perhaps  fit  just  at  the 
entry,  and  be  quite  loose  when  fairly  on ;  or,  it  may  be 
that  it  will  be  easy  at  first,  and  when  you  press  it  on,  it 
will  be  tighter  and  become  split, — a  very  common  but 
unpleasant  occurrence.  Do  not,  moreover,  turn  down 
these  sides  as  thin  as  they  will  ultimately  be;  because, 
after  the  box  is  hollowed  and  the  cover  fitted  on^  both  will 
have  to  be  slightly  turned  together  to  finish  them  nicely. 
Moreover,  you  may  not  wish  your  box  to  have  plain  sides, 
but  may  prefer  to  mould  them  into  a  more  elegant  form. 
All  these  little  questions  have  to  be  duly  considered  in 
turning,  for  a  mistake  is  often  made,  and  the  work  spoiled, 
for  want  of  a  little  timely  consideration 


HO  W  TO  MAKE  A  BOX. 


The  next  point  on  which  you  have  to  be  o-n  your  guard  is 
this, — having  turned  out  the  cover,  you  have  to  cut  it  off, 
not  with  a  saw,  but  with  your  parting-tool.  Now,  be  sure 
to  leave  thickness  enough  for  the  top  of  the  cover ;  or,  just 
as  you  think  you  have  nearly  severed  the  latter  from  the 
rest  of  the  piece  of  wood,  you  will  see  a  beautiful  little 
ring  tumble  off, — sad  relict  of  your  box  cover,  which  has 
come  to  an  untimely  end. 

The  sliding  square  of  the  turner,  of  which  I  gave  a 
description  among  the  list  of  tools,  will  always  enable  you 
to  gauge  both  the  depth  to  which  the  work  is  hollowed  out, 
and  also  the  squareness  of  the  inside  to  the  bottom.  But 
if  you  have  no  turner's  square,  you  can  easily  gauge  the 
depth  inside,  and  thus  see  how  much  is  necessary  to  be 
allowed  for  the  thickness  of  the  top.  Keep  the  parting- 
tool  edgewise  on  the  rest,  which  should  be  raised  to  such  a 
height  that,  when  this  tool  is  laid  horizontally  across  it,  it 
will  point  nearly  to  the  centre  of  the  work,  i.e.,  the  axis  of 
it.  After  the  parting-tool  has  cut  into  the  wood  a  little 
way,  widen  the  groove  a  little,  and  continue  to  give  the  tool 
a  little  play  right  and  left,  unless  its  end  is  so  much  wider 
than  its  blade  generally  that  it  will  clear  itself  perfectly  as 
it  goes  deeper  and  deeper  into  cut.  If  it  should  bind,  it  is 
almost  certain  to  break,  for  it  is  a  very  thin  tool ;  and  it  is 
better  to  waste  a  little  more  of  your  material  than  to  have 
to  replace  a  spoiled  tool. 


1 90  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

I  shall  suppose  that  you  have  now  succeeded  in  cutting 
off  the  cover ;  uck  it  up  and  lay  it  near  you.  Directions 
are  given  generally  to  turn  down  next  the  flange  upon 
which  the  cover  of  the  box  is  to  be  fitted,  but  this  is  not  to 
be  wholly  done  yet,  and  you  may  proceed  to  hollow  it  out 
as  soon  as  you  have  turned  down  just  so  much  of  this  flange 
as  will  show  you  how  much  to  leave  in  hollowing  out  the 
box.  If  you  fa  the  cover  before  you  have  hollowed  out  the 
box,  you  will  have  the  mortification  of  finding  it  a  great 
deal  too  loose  when  the  box  is  finished,  because  the  latter 
will  contract  in  size  as  soon  as  ever  the  solid  core  is 
removed  from  it.  After  you  have  hollowed  it  out,  you  must 
gauge  the  inside  of  the  cover,  and  the  outside  of  the  place 
that  it  is  to  occupy,  with  the  in-and-out  callipers,  or  with  a 
common  pair,  and  turn  the  flange  till  it  is  almost  correct 
to  this  gauge,  and  only  a  very  little  larger  than  it  ought  to 
be.  When  this  is  the  case,  do  not  trust  any  longer  to  the 
callipers,  but  try  on  the  cover  again  and  again  until  you 
get  a  nice  fit.  You  must  finish  the  flange  with  a  chisel, 
held  flat ;  and  again  I  repeat  the  caution  about  keeping  it 
truly  square,  so  that  the  cover  will  hold  equally  tighi  in  all 
positions.  When  this  is  the  case,  leave  it  on,  and  give  a 
last  touch  to  both  box  and  cover  together,  when  yox  ought 
barely  to  be  able  to  see  the  joint. 

You  have  now  only  to  cut  off  the  box  as  you  iid  the 
cover,  using  the  same  precautions.  Before  it  is  quite 


SCREWS  AND  TWISTS. 


severed  ,  however,  you  should  give  it  a  polish.  Pick  up 
a  handful  of  shavings,  and  while  the  work  is  revolving 
as  rapidly  as  possible,  hold  them  with  some  pressure 
against  it.  Every  fibre  will  be  at  once  laid  smooth,  and  it 
will  look  nice  and  bright  at  once.  You  can  varnish  it 
afterwards  if  you  like,  or  French-polish  it.  Varnish  is 
best  for  boxwood,  and  French-polishing  requires  special 
directions,  which  I  shall  give  you  separately  in  a  future 
page. 

To  be  able  to  make  a  box  well,  with  its  cover  well  fitted, 
is  to  be  able  to  do  all  kinds  of  similar  work.  Yet  in  these 
may  be  special  details  deserving  notice.  Probably,  there- 
fore, when  speaking  in  a  future  page  of  particular  objects 
which  have  to  be  turned,  such  special  details  will  be  more 
fitting  than  if  given  here.  I  shall  therefore  pass  on  to 
another  part  of  the  subject,  namely,  screwed  and  twisted 
work. 

SCREWS   AND   TWISTS. 

Neither  of  these  can  be  very  accurately  made  without 
special  and  somewhat  expensive  apparatus  ;  but  both  can 
with  practice  be  done  tolerably  well  by  the  young  mechanic 
with  ordinary  simple  means.  I  need  not  describe  a  screw, 
for  all  boys  know  what  it  is  ;  and  sporting  boys,  of  which 
in  these  days  there  are  many,  know  what  sort  of  animal  a 
screw  is.  Well,  never  mind.  I  am  always  riding  a  screw, 
I  believe,  for  it  is  my  hobby,  and  there  is  a  great  deal  of 


1 92  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


science  in  a  screw;  and  as  for  the  variety  of  the  manufactured 
article,  there  is  plenty  of  it.  There  is  the  corkscrew,  which 
is,  after  all,  not  a  screw,  but  a  twist, — and  this  is  often  the 
means  of  making  men  screwed ;  and  the  miserly  screw,  who 
skins  fleas  for  the  sake  of  their  fat ;  and  there  is  the 
mythical,  invisible,  moral  (and  im-moral)  screw,  which 
hard-fisted  men  inflict  upon  their  weaker  brethren;  and 
there  is  the  gigantic  screw  of  the  Great  Eastern  steamship ; 
and  the  minute,  microscopic  screw  of  the  lady's  tiny 
jewelled  watch. 

There  are  several  modes  of  cutting  screws,  in  the  lathe 
and  out  of  it.  The  small  ones  required  for  holding  together 
the  different  parts  of  machinery,  as  well  as  larger  ones  for 
the  same  purpose,  are  always  cut  with  stock  and  dies. 
The  very  small  ones  used  by  watchmakers,  and  all  below 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  diameter,  are  made  by  the  screw- 
plate.  But  when  either  large  or  small  screws  are  required 
of  great  accuracy,  they  are  invariably  cut  in  the  lathe,  and 
with  the  aid  of  mechanical  appliances  of  the  most  delicately 
accurate  description.  These  are  all  metal  screws.  But  the 
young  mechanic  will  often  wish  to  put  screwed  covers  to 
his  boxes,  and  to  join  various  parts  of  his  work  by  screwed 
connections  instead  of  glue ;  and  all  these  may  be  cut  in  the 
lathe  by  simple  hand-tools  skilfully  applied,  although  the 
operation  is  sufficiently  fraught  with  difficulty  to  require  a 
great  deal  of  practice  before  it  can  be  done  with  certainty 


SCREWS  AND  TWISTS. 


193 


of  success.  At  the  same  time,  my  young  friends  cannot 
possibly  do  better  than  practise  this  operation,  for  there  ara 
numberless  cases  in  which  screws  cannot  be  conveniently 
cut  in  any  other  way,  and  it  is,  further,  an  accomplishment 
that  will  at  once  stamp  them  as  skilful  workmen. 

The  tools  required  are  represented  at  A,  B,  Fig.  51.     A 
is  an  outside,  and  B  an  inside  screw  chasing-tool.     These 


Fig.  51. 

are  always  made  in  pairs,  of  exactly  the  same  pitch,  Le,> 
the  outside  tool  being  applied  to  the  inside,  the  respective 
notches  and  points  will  exactly  fit  into  each  other.  If  you 
were  to  examine  the  under  side  of  these  tools,  shown  at  C, 
you  wuald  notice  that  the  notches  do  not  run  straight,  but 
slanting.  They  are  in  fact  parts  of  screw  threads  \  and  yon 


i94  ?HE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

could  make  a  tool  of  this  kind  out  of  a  common  screw  nut, 
as  I  have  shown  you  at  D,  only  it  would  be  too  much  hol- 
lowed out  to  make  a  good  tool. 

Now,  supposing  you  were  to  hold  the  tool  A  flat  on  the 
rest,  while  a  cylindrical  piece  of  wood  revolved  in  contact 
with  it,  you  would  cut  a  series  of  rings  only ;  but  if  you  were 
at  the  same  time  to  slide  the  tool  sideways  upon  the  rest,  so 
that  by  the  time  the  wood  had  revolved  once,  the  first  point 
of  the  tool  would  have  just  reached  the  spot  which  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  second  when  you  started,  you  would  have 
traced  a  screw  thread  of  that  particular  pitch.  This  is  what 
you  have  to  learn  to  do  always,  and  with  certainty,  no 
matter  what  pitch  of  tool  you  may  be  using,  and  it  is  easy 
to  understand  how  difficult  the  operation  must  be  to  a 
beginner.  Indeed,  there  are  numbers  of  otherwise  good 
turners  who  have  never  succeeded  in  mastering  this  work. 
Nevertheless  it  can  be  done,  and,  although  difficult,  it  is 
not  so  much  so  as  might  be  supposed.  Indeed,  at  first  sight 
it  would  hardly  be  believed  possible,  because  each  different 
pitch  of  tool,  and  each  different-sized  piece  of  work, 
requires  a  different  speed  of  traverse  to  be  given  to  the 
too}.  But  a  practised  hand  will  strike  thread  after  thread 
without  failure,  and  those  whose  trade  is  to  make  all  sorts 
of  screw-covered  boxes  and  similar  articles,  will  execute 
the  work  with  as  much  speed  and  apparent  ease,  as  they 
would  any  ordinary  operation  of  turning.  I  shal]  tell  yon 


SCREWS  AND  TWISTS.  195 

by  and  by,  however,  of  several  ways  to  escape  this  diffi- 
culty of  screw-cutting,  —  lathes  being  fitted  in  various 
ways  to  insure  good  work,  in  some  cases  by  carrying 
forward  the  tool  at  exactly  the  right  rate  of  traverse,  and 
at  others  by  moving  along  the  work  itself  at  the  proper 
speed,  while  the  cutting  tool  is  held  immovably,  fixed  in  one 
position, — and  I  will  give  one  tool  of  great  service  which 
will  guide  you  in  starting  the  ordinary  chasing-tool;  and 
a  good  start  is  here  truly  "  half  the  battle." 

The  chasing-tool  must  run  from  right  to  left  for  an 
ordinary  right-handed  screw  (and  a  left-handed  one  is  very 
seldom  required),  so  that  the  young  mechanic  need  not 
trouble  himself  about  it.  Precise  directions  cannot  be 
given  further  than  to  have  a  rest  with  a  very  smooth  and 
even  edge,  which  will  not  in  the  least  hinder  the  traverse 
of  the  chasing-tool,  and  to  get  the  lathe  into  sready, 
equable  motion.  Then  hold  the  tool  lightly,  but  firmly, 
keeping  it  at  right  angles  with  the  work.  Allow  it  only 
just  to  touch  until  you  find  you  have  got  into  the  right 
swing.  It  is  all  a  matter  of  knack  and  practice ;  and  if  you 
succeed  quickly,  you  may  congratulate  yourself. 

The  inside  chasing-tool  is  used  in  precisely  the  same 
way,  running  it  from  the  outer  edge  of  the  hole  inwards. 
To  some  this  is  an  easier  tool  to  use  than  the  outside 
chaser.  I  cannot  say  that  I  find  it  so ;  especially  as  one 
has  to  work  more  in  the  dark  :  unless  the  work  is  of  large 


ig6  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

diameter  like  the  cover  of  a  box,  and  even  then  the  work  is 
sufficiently  difficult  owing  to  the  shallowness  of  the  lid, 
which  necessitates  the  instant  stopping  of  the  tool  for  a 
fresh  cut.  For  you  must  understand  that  you  have  to 
deepen  the  screw-threads  very  gradually,  and  it  will  take 
several  traverses  of  the  tool  to  cut  them  to  a  sufficient 
depth. 

The  chasers  require  to  be  very  sharp  to  cut  wooden  screws 
neatly,  but  observe  you  must  only  rub  the  upper  flat  face 
upon  the  oilstone,  or,  if  a  notch  has  been  made  by  using 
the  tools  upon  metal  (they  will  cut  brass  well  with  care), 
grind  them  in  the  same  way ;  the  great  secret  being  to  hold 
the  tool  quite  flat  on  the  stone.  You  will  thus,  even  by 
continual  grinding,  only  thin  the  blade  of  the  chaser, 
which  will  thus  last  for  a  long  time.  A  practised  hand 
will  even  cut  a  good  thread  with  any  flat  piece  of  steel 
filed  into  equal  notches,  but  a  screw-chaser  is  the  only  tool 
really  fit  for  the  purpose. 

The  most  effectual  remedy  for  the  screw-cutting  diffi- 
culty, is  unfortunately  rather  expensive  in  its  best  form. 
But  in  another,  it  is  by  no  means  costly ;  and  although  it 
may  not  look  so  well  as  the  first,  it  is  equally  effective,  and 
extensively  used  by  the  turners  at  Tunbridge  Wells,  who 
make  those  beautiful  little  inlaid  boxes  and  other  articles. 
I  shall  explain  this  to  you,  therefore,  first : — 

A,  is  a  lathe-head,  something  like  the  one  I  have  already 


CHASING  SCREWS. 


described,  but  you  will  notice  that  the  mandrel  is  a  much 
longer  one,  and  has  several  short  screws  cut  upon  it,  each 
one  being  of  a  different  "  thread"  or  "pitch."*  This 


Kg.  52. 

mandrel  runs  through  two  collars,  so  that,  besides  turn- 
ing  round,  it  can  be  pushed  end-wise.     Now,  supposing 

*  In  the  drawing,  they  are  all  accidentally  drawn  of  the  same  pitch. 


198  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

I  was  to  hold  the  point  of  a  tool  firmly  against  either  of 
the  screws,  and  at  the  same  time  was  to  turn  the  pulley 
and  mandrel,  you  will  understand  that  it  would  run  back- 
wards or  forwards  in  its  collars,  at  such  a  rate  as  the 
screw-thread  compelled  it  to  move.  This  is  the  plan  of 
the  traversing  mandrel ;  and  now  supposing  that  you  had 
a  box  held  as  usual  in  a  chuck,  and  while  the  mandrel  wa? 
compelled  to  move  end-wise  as  described,  you  were  to  hold 
a  pointed  tool  against  it,  the  tool  would  evidently  cut  a 
screw-thread  of  exactly  the  same  pitch  as  that  upon  the 
mandrel  against  which  the  pointed  tool  first  spoken  of  was 
applied.  But  in  practice,  a  single-pointed  tool  held  against 
the  mandrel  would  not  answer  very  well,  and  so  the  follow- 
ing plan  is  adopted  instead,  which  answers  perfectly. 

Fig.  52,  C,  is  called  a  half- nut.  It  has  a  set  of  screw- 
threads,  cut  where  the  semicircular  hollow  is,  which  threads 
fit  one  of  the  screws  on  the  mandrel.  A  whole  row  of  these 
half-nuts  are  fitted  to  turn  at  one  end  upon  a  long  bar, 
so  that  either  one  can  be  raised  up  at  pleasure  to  touch  the 
screw  upon  the  mandrel,  which  has  threads  of  the  same 
pitch  as  itself,  B.  These,  then,  are  ranged  under  the 
mandiel,  and  when  it  is  desired  to  make  it  traverse  in  ita 
collars,  one  of  these  half-nuts  is  raised  and  kept  up  by  & 
wedge  placed  underneath  it.  When  no  screw  is  required, 
a  somewhat  similar  half-nut,  but  with  merely  a  sharp  edge 
instead  of  a  thread,  is  raised,  and  this  edge  falls  into  a 


CHASING  SCREWS.  199 

notch  or  groove  turned  upon  the  mandrel,  or  sometimes  a 
back  centre-screw  is  added  like  D,  and  when  no  screw  has 
to  be  cut,  this  is  run  up  against  the  mandrel  like  aD 
ordinary  lathe. 

In  the  more  expensive  traversing  mandrels,  although  the 
principle  is  the  same,  there  is  a  little  difference  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  different  parts.  The  mandrel  is  not  very 
much  longer  than  usual ;  and  it  has  no  screw-threads  cut 
upon  it.  But  a  number  of  ferules  like  K,  are  made  each 
with  a  screw  upon  its  edge,  and  one  of  these  of  the  desired 
pitch  is  slid  upon  the  end  of  the  mandrel  at  £,  fig.  P, 
and  is  there  held  by  a  nut  or  otherwise,  so  that  it  cannot 
move  out  of  its  place.  The  half-nut  is  seen  at  a.  It  con- 
sists of  a  piece  of  brass  or  steel  of  the  form  shown  with  a 
hole  in  the  middle,  and  a  screw  cut  upon  each  hollow,  so 
that  it  is  a  circle  or  set  of  half-nuts  of  different  pitches. 
This  slips  over  a  pin  at  a,  and  when  the  screw  b  is  turned, 
it  draws  up  this  pin  and  the  nut  attached,  until  the  latter 
comes  in  contact  with  the  ferule  upon  the  end  of  the 
mandrel.  This  is  very  neat  but  expensive.  Now,  by  far 
the  cheapest  and  best  way  for  the  young  mechanic,  is  to  set 
boldly  to  work  to  conquer  the  difficulty  of  chasing  screws 
by  hand.  There  are  even  disadvantages  in  the  expensive 
form  of  a  traversing  mandrel,  which  render  it  by  no  means 
a  desirable  mode  of  fitting  up  a  lathe,  and  after  all,  the 
length  of  screw  which  it  enables  one  to  cut  is  very  limited, 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


and  in  addition,  it  is  not  every  day,  nor  probably  once  a 
month,  that  screw-cutting  will  be  necessary  at  all.  My 
advice,  therefore,  is,  do  not  get  a  traversing  mandrel  until 
you  can  cut  screws  well  with  the  chaser.  When  you  can 
do  this,  you  will  be  able  to  judge  of  the  advantage  or  dis- 
advantage of  one. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  common  screws  are  cut 
without  the  lathe,  by  screw-plates,  or  stocks  and  dies, 
and  the  nut,  or  hole  into  which  such  screws  are  to  fit, 
is  cut  with  a  tap.  A  screw-plate  is  a  simple  affair, — 
a  mere  flat  plate  of  steel,  in  which  several  holes  are 
drilled,  which  are  afterwards  threaded  by  screwing  into 
them  taps,  or  hard  cutting  steel  screws  of  the  size  re- 
quired; the  plate  is  then  hardened  by  being  heated  red- 
hot  and  suddenly  cooled,  after  which  being  much  harder 
than  brass,  iron,  or  steel  which  has  not  gone  throu^ii  such 
process,  it  will  in  turn  cut  a  thread  upon  any  of  these  by 
simply  screwing  them  into  it.  But  although  this  will 
answer  for  small  and  common  screws,  it  is  not  at  all  suit- 
able for  better  ones,  because  the  thread  is  burred  up,  not 
cut  cleanly  as  it  would  be  with  a  proper  tool.  A  far  better 
plan  is-  a  stock  and  dies ;  the  latter  being  practically  a 
hardened  steel  nut  sawn  in  half,  and  fitted  so  that  the  two 
halves  can  be  pressed  nearer  and  nearer  together  as  the 
screw  thread  becomes  deeper.  The  dies  are  screwed  up 
by  means  of  a  thumbscrew  opposite  to  the  handle. 


A   SCREW-BOX. 


To  use  it,  a  piece  of  iron  is  filed  up  or  turned  to  the 
required  size,  which  must  be  exactly  that  of  the  finished 
screw.  The  dies  are  then  loosened  and  slipped  on  to  the 
ond  of  this  screw-blank  as  it  is;  called,  and  are  then  slightly 
tightened  upon  it.  All  that  is  now  required  is  to  keep 
turning  the  tool  round  and  round  upon  the  pin,  which  it 
will  soon  cut  into  a  screw  thread.  When  the  stock  is  at 
the  bottom  or  top,  you  may  tighten  the  dies,  and  so  work 
up  or  down  ;  but  never  tighten  them  in  any  other  part.  If 
iron  or  steel  is  to  be  cut,  use  oil  with  the  tool,  but  brass 
may  be  dry.  If  the  screw  is  of  steel,  heat  it  red-hot  and 
let  it  cool  very  gradually,  to  make  it  as  soft  as  possible. 

The  hole  or  nut,  into  which  the  screw  is  to  fit,  is  to  be 
drilled  so  as  just  to  allow  the  taper  tap  to  enter  about  a 
couple  of  threads ;  a  wrench,  or,  if  small,  a  hand-vice  is 
then  applied  to  twist  it  forcibly  into  the  hole,  when  the 
thread  will  be  completed.  -Take  great  care  to  hold  the  tap 
upright,  or  else,  if  it  is  a  screw  with  a  flat  head  which  has. 
to  fit  into  it,  it  will  not  lie  correctly,  but  one  side  of  the 
head  will  touch  while  the  other  is  more  or  less  raised. 

There  are  other  modes  of  screw  cutting,  but  at  present  J 
need  only  mention  one,  which  is  used  for  wooden  screws 
alone.  It  is  called  a  screw-box,  and  is  only  made  to  cut 
one  size,  a  tap  being  always  sold  to  match.  You  can,  how- 
ever, purchase  any  size  you  like,  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
to  2  or  3  inches :  "but  the  latter  are  only  intended  for  very 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


large  screws,  such  as  are  used  for  carpenters'  benches  and 
various  kinds  of  presses.  A  screw-box  looks  like  a  small 
block  of  wood  with  a  hole  in  it,  but  if  you  take  out  two 
screws  you  will  find  a  blade  of  a  peculiar  shape,  which 
forms  the  thread  by  cutting  the  wood  as  it  is  screwed  into 
the  hole  in  the  box. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

HARD-WOOD    TURNING. 

E  now  discard  almost  entirely  the  gouge  and 
chisel  used  for  soft  woods,  and  fall  back  upon 
an  entirely  different  set  of  tools,  similar  to  those 
used  for  metal,  bat  ground  to  rather  more  acute 
angles.  These  tools  are  held  horizontally  upon  the  rest, 
because  depressing  the  handles  causes  the  bevel  below  the 
edge  to  rub  upon  the  work ;  and  in  addition,  the  grain  of 
hard  foreign  woods  ib  such  that  it  cannot  well  be  cut  by 
placing  the  tool  at  a  more  acute  angle,  as  would  theoreti- 
cally be  required.  Hence  we  can  only  regard  these  as 
scraping  tools ;  but  as  such  they  will  do  excellent  work  in 
skilful  hands.  I  have  said  that  we  discard  the  gouge,  but 
there  are  some  woods  that  will  bear  this  tool,  to  take  off  the 
roughest  parts  of  the  work,  before  the  application  of  others. 
The  roughing -tool,  however,  may  now  be  considered  to  be 
the  point-tool,  and  the  round-end  tool,  or  "  round  "  as  it  10 


204  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


often  called;  a  narrow  one  makes  a  good  tool  for  this 
purpose. 

Hard  wood  is  easier  on  the  whole  to  work  than  soft, 
because  we  have  for  the  purpose  a  large  stock  of  tools  ol 
all  shapes,  suitable  to  the  various  mouldings  required. 
Hollows,  round-beading  tools,  compound  and  simple 
moulding  tools  of  various  sizes,  to  say  nothing  of  those 
which  are  made  for  use  with  ornamental  apparatus,  such 
as  are  required  for  fluting,  beading,  and  eccentric  work, 
spirals,  and  so  forth.  It  is  indeed  in  hard  wood  that  most 
amateurs  are  accustomed  to  work ;  ebony  and  ivory, 
singly  or  in  combination,  being  more  extensively  used 
than  any  other. 

To  turn  a  cylinder,  or  any  work  requiring  to  be  held  ai 
both  ends,  you  will  invariably  find  the  cross-chuck  the  best 
to  use, — t1  fork  or  prong  not  taking  hold  in  the  hard 
material,  .tlough  down  to  shape  as  before,  using  the  gouge 
if  it  will  work,  but  keeping  the  rest  as  close  as  possible, 
and  only  taking  a  light  cut.  Then  finish  roughing  with  a 
round-tool,  and  proceed  generally  as  in  soft  wood  turning, 
except  inasmuch  as  you  have  to  scrape  instead  of  cutting 
the  work  into  form. 

In  addition  to  the  tools  already  described,  you  will  have 
to  obtain  a  few  beading-tools,  if  you  want  to  do  very  good 
work,  for  these  give  far  more  beautiful  mouldings  than  you 
can  cut  in  any  other  manner.  Fig.  53,  A  to  C,  represent 


SIDE-PARTING  TOOL.  205 

these.  The  bevel  is  on  the  under  side,  and  it  is  better  to 
interfere  with  it  as  little  as  possible,  by  always  sharpening 
the  flat  face  only.  If  it  should  be  necessary r,  however,  to 
touch  the  bevil,  it  must  be  rubbed  by  a  slip  of  oilstone, 
rounded  on  the  edge,  as  used  for  sharpening  gouges. 
Conical  grinders,  revolving  in  the  lathe,  are  also  used, 
especially  for  small  beading-tools,  to  be  fixed  in  the  slide- 
rest.  In  the  same  figure,  D  and  E  represent  another  useful 
hard-wood  and  ivory  tool.  It  is  called  the  side-parting 
tool;  and  it  is  usual  to  have  several  of  these,  the  hooka 
increasing  in  length.  The  edge  is  only  on  the  extreme  end 
of  the  hook.  These  tools  are  used  for  economy's  sake  to 
cut  solid  blocks  of  ivory  and  hard-wood  from  the  inside  of 
boxes,  instead  of  cutting  the  material  into  a  heap  of  useless 
shavings.  Similar  tools,  G,  H,  curved  instead  of  rectan- 
gular, serve  to  cut  out  a  solid  piece  from  the  inside  of  P 
bowl.  In  ivory  work  it  is  essential  to  use  these  tools, 
because  such  material  is  very  costly ;  $2.50  a  lb.,  and  up- 
wards, being  a  common  price. 

K  is  given  to  show  what  are  meant  by  beadings.  If 
these  are  exactly  semicircular  in  section,  they  are  far 
more  beautiful  in  appearance  than  if  of  such  curves  as  can 
be  roughly  cut  by  a  chisel.  The  bead-tools  are  beautifully 
formed  for  this  very  purpose.  To  use  the  same  side-parting 
tool,  you  must  proceed  as  follows,  which  you  will  under- 
stand by  the  fig.  L :— A  common  straight  part  ing -tool  or 


306 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


THE  RING-TOOL.  207 


narrow  chisel  is  first  applied  to  the  face  of  the  work  to  cur 
a  deep  circular  groove  or  channel,  as  shown  by  the  white 
space  at  N,  and  in  section  at  L.  This  allows  the  narrowest 
of  the  hooked  tools  to  be  applied  to  under-cut  the  solid  core 
x.  This  being  withdrawn,  a  rather  longer  hook  is  applied, 
the  hook  being  held  downwards  as  at  0,  until  it  reaches 
the  spot  where  it  is  to  work,  when  it  is  gradually  turned 
up  (bevel  below).  Eventually,  it  is  plain  that  the  solid 
core  or  centre  block  x  will  fall  out  entire,  which  may  be 
used  for  other  purposes.  M  shows  how  a  similar  but 
curved  block  can  be  removed  from  the  inside  of  a 
cup  or  bowl,  the  curved  tool  not  requiring  an  entry  to  be 
made  for  it,  as  it  cuts  its  own  way  entirely  from  first  to 
last. 

P  and  Q  show  a  ring-tool  and  the  method  of  using  it. 
A  recess  is  turned  in  the  face  of  a  piece  of  wood  as  it 
it  was  intended  to  hollow  out  a  box.  The  ring-tool  is 
then  applied  bevel  downwards,  and  with  the  left  cutting 
edge  a  bead  is  cut  half-through  from  the  inside.  The 
right  edge  is  then  applied  to  the  outside,  and  when  the 
cuts  meet  the  ring  neatly  finished,  will  fall  off.  "With  this 
tool  you  can  turn  them  very  rapidly,  and  they  will  require 
only  a  rub  of  sand-paper  to  finish  them. 

R,  S,  T  are  three  more  tools  for  hard  wood.  The  first 
two  cut  on  the  outside  of  the  curved  part  all  round.  These 
would  be  used  to  hollow  out  humming-tops  and  all  similar 


208  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

articles,  and  to  finish  the  insides  of  bowls,  for  which  T  ia 
also  designed.  Indeed,  I  might  go  on  to  describe  all  pos- 
sible shapes  of  curved  tools,  each  intended  for  some  special 
work;  but  you  will  not  do  better  than  to  go  to  Fenn,  Buck, 
or  any  tool-maker  in  London,  or  elsewhere,  and  pick  out  at 
7s.,  or  so,  per  dozen,  all  shapes  and  sizes,  or  if  you  live  at 
a  distance  and  write  to  either  of  the  above,  they  will  select 
you  the  most  useful;  and  you  can  trust  these  tradesmen 
and  all  first-class  ones  to  send  you  no  tools  which  are  not 
of  the  best  quality. 

In  finishing  best  work  in  hard  wood,  be  very  careful  of 
all  sharp  edges  of  mouldings.  Sand  and  glass  paper  round 
off  these,  and  spoil  the  beauty  of  the  work.  If  you  are 
obliged  to  use  such  substances,  touch  off  again  the  edges 
with  very  keen  tools,  which  ought  to  leave  brighter  and 
more  beautiful  surfaces  than  any  sand-paper  can  produce. 
Indeed,  the  secret  of  finished  work  in  hard  wood  is  to  have 
tools  whose  edges  and  bevels  are  polished.  In  ornamental 
eccentric  and  rose-engine  turning,  where  to  use  sand-paper 
would  be  to  ruin  the  appearance  of  it,  the  little  drills  and 
cutters  pass  through  three  stages  of  sharpening,  being 
ground  on  the  oilstone,  finished  on  a  slab  of  brass,  fed  with 
oil  and  oilstone  powder,  and  polished  on  a  slab  of  iron  with 
oil  alone  or  oil  and  rouge.  After  this  every  cut  that  'is  made 
with  them  reflects  the  light;  and  as  the  surface  is  otherwise 
purposelv  erailed  or  dulled  by  cutting  a  series  of  .fine  lijjht 


TURNING  IN  METALS.  209 

rings  with  a  point  tool,  the  pattern  itself  shows  out  clearly 
and  lustrously. 

TURNING  BRASS  AND  OTHER  METALS. 

I  shall  now  teach  you  how  to  turn  iron  and  brass,  which, 
though  harder  than  wood,  are  not  very  difficult  to  cut,  if 
you  go  to  work  in  a  proper  manner  and  understand  how  tc 
use  your  tools.  What  these  are  like  I  have  already  told 
you,  and  also  how  to  mount  a  bar  in  the  lathe  by  using  the 
driver  or  point-chuck  with  a  carrier.  If  the  piece  to  be 
turned  is  not  a  bar,  you  will  have  to  drive  it  into  a  chuck 
of  wood,  or  clamp  it  upon  a  face-plate,  or  in  a  self-centring 
chuck  if  you  have  one. 

I  shall  suppose,  first  of  all,  a  mere  straight  bar  of  iron, 
centred  at  the  ends,  as  I  have  shown  you.  Take  off  the  lathe- 
cord  that  you  use  for  wood,  and  fit  one  to  go  upon  the  largest 
part  of  the  mandrel  pulley, 'and  the  smallest  upon  the  fly- 
wheel. When  you  now  put  your  foot  upon  the  treadle  to  work 
at  your  usual  speed,  you  will  find  the  mandrel  turn  quite 
slowly ;  but  I  may  at  once  tell  you,  that  what  you  lose  in 
speed  you  gain  in  power.  Set  your  rest  for  iron  (which  is 
not  that  used  for  wood,  but  one  with  a  broad,  flat  top)  so 
that  it  stands  a  little  below  the  central  line  of  the  lathe 
mandrel  and  work,  which  will  bring  the  edge  of  the  tool 
exactly  upon  that  line.  This  is  always  the  position  of  the 
tool  for  metal-turning,  at  any  rate  for  iron. 


1HE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


Begin  by  trimming  the  end  of  the  bar  next  to  the  back 
centre.  Use  a  graver,  held  as  I  directed  you;  that  is,  with 
the  bevel  flat  upon  the  face  of  the  iron,  which  is  in  this  case 
the  end  of  it.  Only  let  the  point  cut,  and  a  very  little  of 
the  edge  beyond  it,  and  do  not  expect  to  take  a  deep  cut  so 
as  to  bring  off  a  thick  shaving.  In  metal  work  you  will 
always  have  to  proceed  slowly,  but  nothing  is  more  pleasant 
when  once  you  can  do  it  well. 

You  will  at  first  have  to  experimentalise  a  little  as  to  the 
exact  angle  at  which  to  hold  the  tool,  but  you  will  soon  find 
out  this ;  and  the  advantage  of  hand- tools  is,  that  you  can 
always  feel  as  well  as  see  how  they  are  working,  and  can 
ease  them  here  and  there  to  suit  the  material.  It  is  rather 
difficult  at  first  to  hold  the  tool  still  in  metal-working,  but, 
like  all  else,  it  becomes  easy  by  practice  ;  so  much  so,  that 
to  hold  the  tool  steadily  in  one  hand  is  not  only  possible,  but 
is  the  mode  always  followed  by  watchmakers.  While  you  are 
about  it,  you  should  turn  the  graver  over  and  try  it  in  other 
positions  ;  for  although  the  two  sides  of  the  bevel  nearest  to 
the  point  are  the  only  ones  to  be  used,  these  may  be  applied 
in  either  direction,  because  they  are  both  sharpened  to  angles 
of  60°,  and  so  long  as  you  present  them  at  the  correct  angle 
(the  smallest  possible  in  respect  of  the  work),  it  matters  not 
which  face  of  the  tool  lies  uppermost.  After  squaring  otf 
one  end,  the  approved  plan  is  to  remove  the  carrier,  reverse 
the  bar,  and  do  the  same  to  the  other  eud.  Then  begin  to 


TURNING  IN  METALS. 


turn  from  the  right  hand.  Place  the  graver  as  before,  with 
the  point  overlapping  the  end  very  slightly  (so  as  only  to 
use  the  extremity  of  the  cutting  edge  close  to  the  point), 
and  take  off  a  light  shaving  along  the  bar  for  a  distance 
of  about  half  an  inch,  or  even  a  quarter,  keeping  the  edge 
of  the  graver  which  is  on  the  rest  in  one  position,  and 
moving  the  tool,  not  by  sliding  it  along  the  rest,  but  by 
using  the  point  upon  which  it  lies  as  a  pivot.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  describe  this  exactly,  but  Fig.  52,  0,  will  help  to 
explain  it.  The  tool  is  to  rest  upon  one  spot,  and  the  point 
to  move  in  short  curves  like  the  dotted  lines,  being  shifted 
to  a  new  position  as  you  feel  it  get  out  of  cut.  The  left 
hand  should  grasp  the  blade  and  hold  it  tightly  down  upon 
the  rest,  while  the  right  moves  the  handle  to  and  fro  as 
required.  The  curved  dotted  lines  are  necessarily  ex- 
aggerated, but  the  principle  of  the  work  is  this,  whether 
you  use  a  graver  or  a  heel-tool.  You  should  turn  about 
half  an  inch  quite  round,  and  then  go  on  to  the  next,  by 
which  you  will  always  have  a  little  shoulder  upon  the  work 
for  the  tool  to  start  upon,  and  this  will  be  nice,  clean,  bright 
metal,  and  will  not  blunt  the  tool.  But  if  you  go  to  work 
differently,  so  that  the  edge  of  the  tool  comes  continually 
in  contact  with  the  rough  outside  of  the  iron  caused  by 
the  heat  of  the  fire,  and  which  is  exceedingly  hard,  the 
point  of  the  tool  will  be  quickly  ground  down,  while  the 
iron  will  not  be  cut  into  at  alL 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


I  need  tell  you  no  more  about  turning  a  bar  of  iron  in 
the  lathe,  because  the  above  directions  apply  in  all  cases  ; 
but  if  you  have  to  turn  the  face  of  a  piece  of  metal  that  is 
carried  in  a  chuck  of  some  kind,  you  should  always  work 
from  the  middle  towards  the  edge,  and  if  the  graver  is 
used,  its  bevelled  face  will  lie  towards  you  during  the  pro- 
cess. Take  care  to  chuck  the  metal  very  firmly,  for  it  is 
most  annoying  to  have  it  suddenly  leave  the  chuck  or  shift 
its  position  after  you  have  been  at  the  trouble  of  turning 
part  of  it  truly.  In  such  case  it  is  very  difficult  to  replace 
it  exactly  as  it  was  before,  and  all  your  work  has  in  con- 
sequence to  be  gone  over  again.  When  taking  the  final 
cut,  or  before,  if  you  like,  dip  the  end  of  the  tool  into  water, 
or  soap  and  water,  and  see  the  effect.  The  surface  turned 
in  this  way  will  be  highly  polished  at  once,  and  the  tool 
will  cut  with  much  greater  ease,  so  that  a  large,  clean 
shaving  will  come  off.  When  using  a  slide-rest,  you  will 
find  it  always  better  to  keep  water  just  dripping  upon  the 
work  and  point  of  the  tool ;  but  there  is  a  drawback,  never- 
theless, to  this  plan,  for,  as  might  be  expected,  it  makes  a 
mess  and  rusts  the  lathe,  and  sometimes  the  work  as  well, 
so  the  water  must  be  constantly  wiped  off  it. 

THE  SLIDE -REST. 

I  shall  now  pass  on  to  describe  a  mechanical  arrangement 
called  a  slide-rest,  of  which  there  are  two  separate  and  dis- 


THE  SL1 r DE-REST,  213 

tinct  forms,  one  for  metal  and  one  for  ornamental  turning 
in  ivory  and  hard  wood.  The  ornamental  work  that  can 
be  done  1  shall  pass  by  for  the  present,  because  few  boys 
are  provided  with  the  costly  apparatus  required,  and  I  am 
rather  addressing  those  young  mechanics  whose  tastes  in- 
cline them  to  model  machinery  and  to  practise  the  various 
operations  of  mechanical  engineering  on  a  small  scale.  To 
such  a  slide-rest  is  an  almost  necessary  addition  to  the  lathe, 
for  there  is  a  great  deal  of  work  which,  I  may  say,  cannot 
be  done  without  it ;  for  instance,  boring  the  cylinders  of 
engines  (except  small  ones  of  brass),  turning  the  piston- 
rods  and  various  pieces  which  require  to  be  accurately 
cylindrical  and  of  equal  size,  perhaps  for  the  length  of  a 
foot  or  more.  Hand-work  has  accomplished  something  in 
this  way  in  olden  days,  but  the  inability  of  workmen  to 
advance  beyond  a  certain  standard  of  perfection  with  hand- 
tools  alone,  became  such  a  hindrance  to  the  manufacture  of 
the  steam-engine,  as  improved  by  Watt  and  others,  that 
had  not  Maudsley,  Nay  smith,  and  others  developed  the 
principle  of  the  slide-rest  and  planing  machine,  we  should 
not  yet  have  lived  to  see  those  gigantic  engines  which  tear 
along  like  demon  horses  with  breath  of  fire,  at  the  rate  of 
sixty  miles  or  more  in  as  many  minutes.  So  likewise 
would  various  other  machines,  which  now  appear  absolutely 
necessary  to  supply  our  various  wants,  have  stood  in  their 
primitive  and  imperfectly  developed  forms;  for  it  is  necessary, 


214  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

before  constructing  a  machine,  to  have  the  means  of  turning 
cylindrical  parts  truly,  and  producing  perfectly  level  plates 
where  required. 

The  object  of  a  slide-rest  is  to  provide  means  for  holding 
a  tool  firmly,  and  giving  it  a  power  to  traverse  to  and  fro 
and  from  side  to  side,  so  that  by  the  first  we  may  be  able 
to  cause  such  tool  to  approach  or  recede  from  the  work, 
and  by  the  second  we  may  cause  it  to  move  in  a  perfectly 
straight  line  along  its  surface  from  end  to  end.  This  is 
accomplished  in  the  following  manner  : — The  drawing 
being  a  representation  of  one  of  the  first  machines  con- 
structed for  the  purpose.  A  rectangular  frame,  A,  of  iron 
is  carried  by  a  pair  of  strong  uprights,  B  B,  fixed  to  the 
sole-plate,  C,  by  which  it  is  attached  by  a  bolt  to  the  bed 
of  the  lathe.  Lengthwise  of  this  frame  runs  a  screw,  pre- 
vented by  collars  from  moving  endwise,  but  which  can  be 
turned  round  by  the  winch-handle,  D.  Thus  a  nut  through 
which  this  screw  passes,  and  which  only  has  endwise 
motion,  will,  when  the  latter  is  turned  by  its  handle, 
traverse  it  from  end  to  end  in  either  direction,  ac 
cording  as  the  screw  may  be  turned  from  right  to 
left  or  the  contrary.  This  nut  is  attached  to  the  under 
part  of  a  sliding-plate,  E,  which  has  a  part  projecting 
between  the  sides  of  the  frame,  and  also  two  others  on  its 
outside,  by  which  it  grasps  the  same  with  great  accuracy, 
and  is  prevented  from  any  shake  or  play  as  the  whole 


THE  SLIDE-REST.  215 

with  the  nut  is  made  to  traverse  to  and  fro  along  the 
frame. 

Lengthwise  of  this  sliding-plate,  that  is,  in  a  direction 
the  opposite  to  that  of  its  own  traverse,  are  two  bars  bevelled 
underneath,  fixed  exactly  parallel  to  each  other,  which  are 
so  arranged  to  guide  the  cross  traverse  of  another  plate 
with  chamfered  edges  to  fit  the  bevels  of  the  guide  bars. 
This  second  plate  has  on  its  upper  surface  two  clamps 
which  secure  the  tool.  It  is  plain,  then,  that  by  this  ar- 
rangement the  two  required  movements  are  attained,  the 
lower  plate  sliding  along  in  one  direction  parallel  with  the 
lathe-bed,  and  the  other  across  it.  In  the  original  rests, 
this  upper  plate  with  the  tool  was  moved  by  hand,  and  in 
the  modern  rest  for  ornamental  turning  (which  this  was 
also  constructed  for)  the  same  is  done,  but  a  hand-lever  is 
added  for  the  purpose. 

But  although  a  similar  arrangement  is  needed  for  metal,  it 
is  plain  that  the  top  plate  should  have  a  more  easily  regulated 
motion,  and  that  we  should  be  able  to  advance  the  tool  as 
near  the  work  as  may  be  desired,  and  then  to  retain  it 
securely  at  that  distance  while  giving  the  necessary  move 
ment  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  object  to  be  turned. 
The  method  of  effecting  this  is  at  once  suggested  by  the 
ecrew  and  nut  of  the  lower  part,  and  by  merely  adding  to 
the  top  a  similar  arrangement,  the  desired  end  is  at  once 
attained. 


216 


2 HE   YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


The  actual  construction  of  such  rest  varies  somewhat, 
but  Fig.  54,  H,  shows  it  in  its  most  ordinary  form.  The 
lower  part  is,  of  course,  to  be  clamped  down  securely  to  the 


Tig.  Si. 

lathe-bed,  there  being  a  projection  below  which  is  made  to 
fit  accurately  between  the  bearers  similar  to  that  beneath 
the  poppits.  This  projection  secures  the  correct  position 
of  the  rest,  of  which  one  frame  or  plate  will  travel  length 


THE  SLIDE-REST.  217 


wise  of  the  bed,  while  the  other  will  move  exactly  at  right 
angles  to  it.  But  in  the  compound  slide-rest,  which  is  very 
general,  there  is  also  a  third  circular  motion,  by  which  the 
upper  part  can  be  set  at  any  angle  with  the  lower,  instead  of 
being  permanently  fixed  at  right  angles  to  it.  By  this  the 
tool  can  be  made  to  approach  the  work  more  and  more  as 
it  passes  along  it ;  and  it  will  therefore  cut  deeper  at  one 
end  of  its  traverse  than  at  the  other.  The  result  will  be 
that  what  is  thus  turned  will  not  be  a  true  cylinder,  but  a 
cone,  i.e.,  it  will  be  larger  at  one  end  than  the  other, 
although  otherwise  smooth  and  even. 

We  are  thus  provided  with  the  most  valuable  addition  to 
the  lathe  ever  devised  by  mechanics,  and  it  is  no  longer  a 
question  of  the  strength  and  skill  of  the  workman  whether 
we  can  produce  a  perfect  piece  of  work,  but  simply  of  the 
accuracy  with  which  the  lathe  and  rest  are  constructed,  and 
of  the  form  and  condition  of  the  tools  to  be  used.  The  latter 
are  not  exactly  like  those  ordinarily  used,  although  the 
principle  of  the  cutting  angles  already  laid  down  needs  to 
be  adhered  to  even  with  more  unfailing  attention  than  that 
required  for  the  correct  formation  of  hand-tools.  Moreover,  it 
is  plain  that — here  we  shall  no  longer  feel  whether  the  tool 
xs  working  as  it  ought  to  do — we  shall  be  unconscious  }f 
the  precise  amount  of  strain  that  is  being  brought  to  bear 
against  its  edge,  and  if  it  is  by  chance  working  in  a  bad 
position,  at  a  wrong  angle,  we  cannot  re- adjust  it  in  a 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


moment  as  we  could  a  hand-tool  by  a  slight  movement  of 
the  fingers  or  wrist. 

Hence  you  will  see  at  once  how  very  important  it  is  that 
tools  for  the  slide-rest  should  be  shaped  with  the  most  rigid 
adherence  to  correct  principles  ;  and,  further,  that  they 
should  be  so  fixed  in  the  slide-rest  as  to  meet  the  work  at 
the  precise  angle,  and  at  the  height  exactly  suited  to  the 
material  of  which  it  is  composed.  As  regards  the  latter 
point,  it  may  be  taken  as  an  almost  invariable  rule  that  the 
work  should  be  attacked  on  its  axial  line  (that  is,  a  line 
that  would  run  from  end  to  end  of  it  dividing  it  lengthwise 
into  equal  parts,  or,  as  it  would  commonly  be  named,  its 
middle  line).  If  the  tool  meets  it  above  this,  it  is  most 
likely  that  it  will  rub  against  it,  and  the  point  will  be  out 
of  cut.  If  it  meets  it  below,  there  will  be  a  tendency  for 
the  point  to  catch  in,  and  the  work  to  roll  up  upon  the  face 
of  the  tool,  which,  in  fact,  it  very  often  does  with  careless 
workmen,  and  then  there  comes  a  smash  of  some  kind  — 
lathe  centres  snapped  off,  the  tool  broken,  the  bar  bent 
beyond  remedy,  and  possibly  the  operator's  toes  made  un- 
pleasantly tender. 

The  most  common  slide-rest  tool  for  outside  work  is 
that  given  at  Ha.  It  is  made  straight,  as  shown,  or  bent 
sideways  to  right  or  left  to  cut  shoulders  on  the  work,  or 
enter  hollows,  or  creep  sneakingly  round  corners,  or  any 
other  of  those  crooked  ways  in  which  man  delights  ;  but 


THE  SLIDE-REST.  2i<j 

whether  straight  or  not,  these  tools  have  all  most  com- 
monly the  cranked  form  shown  here.  This  gives  the  tools 
a  slight  degree  of  elasticity — not  very  much,  because  that 
would  only  injure  the  perfection  of  the  work ;  therefore 
they  are  not  very  considerably  cranked.  The  angles  are 
ground  as  directed  in  the  table  of  tool-angles,  and  if  the 
point  is  too  low,  slips  of  iron  are  placed  below  the  shank 
upon  the  tool-plate  of  the  slide-rest ;  if  too  high,  the  grind- 
stone must  be  resorted  to ;  and  the  advantage  of  these 
cranked  tools  is,  that  they  can  be  ground  down  several 
times  without  being  brought  too  low  to  be  packed  up  with 
iron  slips  to  the  right  level.  Thus  a  cranked  tool  is  by  far 
more  advantageous  for  the  slide-rest  than  one  made  straight 
like  those  used  for  hand-turning.  For  inside  work,  how- 
ever, or  "  holing,"  the  crank  form  is  not  possible,  unless 
the  hole  is  of  large  size,  and  so,  for  this  purpose,  straight 
side-tools  are  used,  like  K. 

If  the  tool  is  well  placed,  as  well  as  correctly  made, 
nothing  can  be  more  easy  and  delightful  than  slide-rest 
work.  You  merely  advance  the  tool  to  take  the  required 
cut  (beginning  generally  at  the  right-hand  end  of  the  bar), 
and  then  gently  turning  the  other  handle,  you  will  see  it 
traverse  along,  as  if  work  was  a  pleasure  to  it,  as  it  ought 
to  be  to  all  young  mechanics.  Not  infrequently,  however, 
instead  of  this  even,  steady  work,  the  tool  jumps  and 
catches,  or  rubs  and  shrieks  :  it  is  out  of  temper,  I  sup- 


220  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

pose  ;  at  any  rate,  in  some  one  or  more  particulars  it  needs 
correction. 

Although  with  the  slide-rest  you  can  generally  venture 
upon  taking  a  deeper  cut  than  you  could  with  hand-tools, 
it  is  by  no  means  well  to  hurry  the  work.  At  first, 
especially  before  it  has  become  cylindrical,  the  tool  will 
only  cut  partly  round  its  surface,  and  the  work  is  done  in 
an  uncomfortable,  jerking,  dissatisfied  sort  of  way,  and  the 
deeper  you  drive  the  tool  the  worse  it  is ;  but  as  soon  as 
the  outer  skin  is  off,  and  the  work  has  become  cylindrical, 
a  long,  clear,  bright  shaving  curls  off  pleasantly  from  end  to 
end,  and  the  surface  ought,  if  the  tool  is  wetted,  to  become 
at  once  of  a  finished  appearance. 

You  should  always,  with  a  slide-rest,  take  the  whole  run 
of  the  piece  from  end  to  end  to  a  certain  depth,  and  then, 
commencing  again  at  the  end,  repeat  the  same  process,  and 
BO  on  until  the  required  size  is  almost  attained.  When  it 
is,  take  out,  the  tool  with  the  pointed  end  which  has  been 
in  use,  and  insert  one  freshly  sharpened  with  a  broad  point, 
getting  it  so  placed  as  to  cut  the  shaving  both  from  the 
surface  below,  and  from  the  shoulder  to  which  it  is  attached 
at  the  side,  as  I  explained  to  you  in  the  chapter  on  grind- 
ing and  setting  tools,  and  which  must  be  well  understood 
before  you  can  hope  to  make  good  work  with  tools  rigidly 
fixed  in  a  slide-rest.  With  this  tool,  kept  wet  with  soap 
and  water  (or  soda  water,  which  is  better  for  this  than  for 


THE  SLIDE-REST. 


your  stomach),  take  a  very  light  shaving  from  end  to  end, 
taking  especial  care  to  turn  the  handle  which  gives  the 
traverse  slowly  and  evenly.  If  you  stop,  or  almost  stop, 
the  tool  will  be  sure  to  draw  a  little  deeper  into  cut,  which 
will  make  a  scratch  upon  the  work,  or,  it  may  be,  plough 
a  groove,  and  so  far  spoil  the  appearance  of  it. 

Whenever  you  finish  turning  any  bar  that  has  been 
centred  at  each  end,  be  careful  to  leave  the  centre  marks 
just  as  they  were  when  the  work  was  in  the  lathe.  The 
ends  will  have  been  otherwise  trimmed  off  at  the  very  com- 
mencement, and  it  may  happen  that  at  some  future  day  it 
may  be  desired  to  re-mount  the  piece  for  repair,  when,  if 
these  marks  are  gone,  and  new  centres  have  to  be  drilled, 
the  whole  will  run  so  much  out  of  truth  that  it  will  have  to 
be  entirely  re-turned  from  the  commencement.  Do  not, 
therefore,  fancy  that  these  centre  marks  are  unsightly,  and 
forthwith  file  them  out,  but  be  content  to  leave  them. 

Slide-rest  tools,  made  in  the  ordinary  way,  are  so  far 
troublesome  in  use  that  if  they  get  broken  you  must  have 
them  re-forged,  and  few  country  smiths  know  anything 
about  such  matters.  I  have  a  tool  now  lying  by  me  made 
by  a  smith  (^true,  it  was  a  Welsh  smith),  and  although  I 
stood  by  and  explained  how  it  should  be  done,  and  cut  one 
out  of  a  piece  of  wood,  it  never  arrived  at  a  proper  shape, 
and  was  never  even  placed  upon  the  rest.  I  keep  it  as  old 
Izaak  Walton  kept  the  Londoner's  artificial  fly,  viz.,  "  to 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


laugh  at,"  and  as  a  caution  to  all  concerned,  never  to  go 
to  a  country  blacksmith  for  slide-rest  tools.  The  following 
plan  answers  very  well  for  many  kinds  of  outside  work, 
and  is  on  the  whole  a  plan  that  may  be  satisfactorily  fol- 
lowed by  the  young  mechanic. 

Instead  of  having  the  tools  constructed  from  a  large  bar 
of  steel  half  an  inch  or  so  in  the  square,  they  are  made  of 
short  pieces  about  an  inch  long,  fitted  into  a  peculiar 
holder. 

The  advantage  of  this  arrangement  consists  in  the  ease 
with  which  you  can  make  your  own  tools  out  of  broken 
round,  triangular,  or  square  pillar  files,  small  chisels  and 
such  like.  These  can  be  shaped  by  the  grindstone  alone, 
and  the  blacksmith  will  not  have  to  be  called  into  requisi- 
tion. I  shall  give  you  two  forms  of  tool-holders,  more 
or  less  simple,  because  I  may  suppose  my  young  mechanic 
to  be  fast  growing  into  an  old  hand,  and  able  to  appreciate 
differences  in  these  arrangements. 

Fig.  55,  A,  B,  represents  two  of  such  holders,  one  for 
round,  the  other  for  flat  steel  cutters.  Yon  can  see  at  once 
that  when  these  are  upon  the  bed  of  the  rest,  they  form  a 
tool  with  cranked  end,  as  previously  described,  and  ran 
therefore  be  used  in  precisely  the  same  manner.  I  shall 
give  no  directions  for  making  these  tool-holders,  which  are, 
nevertheless,  very  simple  affairs,  and  can  be  readily  under- 
stood from  the  drawings  here  given, 


SLI&E-JtEST  TOOL-HOLDERS. 


223 


Another  form  is  shown  at  C.  The  part  de  is  a  clamp, 
which  is  separately  drawn  &if.  This,  like  the  last,  enables 
one  to  use  all  sorts  of  odds  and  ends  for  tools.  There  are 


Fig.  55. 

several  other  patterns  of  tool-holders,  arranged  either  to  use 
the  little  pieces  of  square,  round,  or  triangular  steel  bars, 
so  that  one  side,  at  least,  of  these  may  remain  without 
grinding,  and  others  in  which  two  entirely  new  faces  must 
be  given  to  the  tool  by  the  grindstone.  The  latter  are, 
perhaps,  generally  the  best,  because  you  can  then,  with  the 


224  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


aid  of  the  table  of  tool-angles,  shape  your  cutters  very 
accurately  to  the  work  required  of  them. 

Although  such  tool-holders  and  cutters  are  generally 
used  for  metals,  there  are  others  intended  for  wood ;  and 
constructed  to  hold  miniature  gouges  and  chisels,  which 
perform  their  work  admirably.  A  capital  tool  for  outside 
work,  Fig.  55,  E,  which  was  used  extensively  at  Portsmouth 
dockyard  for  brass  turning,  is  made  simply  by  filing  off  at 
an  angle  of  about  45°  a  round  short  bar  of  steel.  This 
angle,  however,  is  unusually  small  for  brass  and  gun-metal, 
80°  being  better.  For  iron  it  will  answer  better,  because 
though  filed,  or  rather  ground  at  45°,  the  cutting  edge,  a 
little  way  from  what  may  be  called  the  point  of  the  tool, 
is  nearer  60°. 

Similar  to  these  last  are  the  tube  gouges,  short  bits  of 
steel  tube  ground  off  and  sharpened.  These  fixed  in  a 
holder  answer  beautifully  for  soft  wood,  and  do  not  "  catch 
in."  If  the  holder  is  bent  so  as  to  bring  the  tool  into 
proper  position,  inside  work  can  be  rapidly  effected  by 
these,  such  as  hollowing  out  large  bowls  and  similar  heavy 
work.  All  this  can,  of  course,  be  done  rapidly  with  the 
slide-rest,  so  far  as  regards  the  removal  of  the  greater  pait 
of  the  wood.  But  in  the  case  of  a  bowl,  in  which  a  curve 
predominates  over  a  straight  line,  hand-tools  must  be  used 
to  finish  it  (generally  the  inside  hook-tool).  This  last  is, 
in  fact,  almost  identical  with  the  tube  gouge ;  for  the 


SLIDE-REST. 


slide-rest,  and  that  which  makes  it  so  difficult  a  tool  to 
use,  is  that,  being  a  hand-tool,  and  subject  to  slight  un- 
intentional changes  of  position  upon  the  part  of  the  work- 
man, it  catches  in,  and  is  either  wrenched  out  of  the  hand, 
or  a  piece  is  chopped  off  the  wood.  Rigidly  held  in  the 
slide-rest,  the  exact  angle,  once  found,  is  of  course  main- 
ftined. 


CHAPTER  %ll. 

NOW  propose  to  assist  the  young  mechanic  in 
special    work,   instead    of   continuing    general 
directions.     This  will  enable  me  to  explain  to 
him  various  lathe  appliances,  and  other  details 
of  mechanical  work  hitherto  passed  by. 

Of  all  models  which  boys  (and  very  big  boys  too)  are 
desirous  to  construct,  the  steam-engine  holds  the  chief 
place,  and  deservedly  so ;  for  every  boy  calling  himself 
mechanical,  ought  to  know  how  this  is  made,  and  the 
general  principles  of  its  construction  as  well.  However,  I 
am  aware,  from  experience,  that  many  a  youngster,  who  is 
even  in  possession  of  a  model  engine,  is  utterly  ignorant  of 
the  cause  of  its  motion;  although  it  is  a  great  delight 
to  them  to  see  the  steam  puffing  out,  and  the  wheel 
revolving  "  nineteen  to  the  dozen,"  as  schoolboys  say. 
Now,  an  engine  is  a  very  simple  affair,  and  can  be  easily 
explained  ;  and,  as  I  wish  my  readers  to  work  rationally, 


HOW  7V  MAKE  A  STEAM-ENGINE.  227 

I  shall  show  them  what  they  have  to  do  before  I  tell  them 
how  to  do  it 


Fig  58. 


A,  Fig.  56,  represents  a  cubical  vessel  of  tin  or  any 


228  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

other  substance.  By  cubical,  I  mean  that  all  its  sides  are 
squares,  and  all  exactly  equal ;  each  side  in  the  present 
case  is  to  be  1  inch  wide  and  long,  or  a  square  inch.  B  is 
a  similar  vessel,  1  foot  cube.  It  contains,  therefore,  1728 
cubic  inches,  or  is  1728  times  as  large  in  capacity  as  the 
first.  Now,  if  I  were  to  fill  the  little  vessel  with  water  and 
tip  it  into  the  second,  and  put  a  lamp  under  it,  the  water 
would  all  soon  boil  away,  as  it  is  called.  It  would  be 
converted  into  steam  ;  and  the  quantity  of  steam  it  would 
produce  would  exactly  fill  the  larger  vessel,  without  excit- 
ing any  particular  pressure  upon  its  sides. 

Steam,  thus  allowed  plenty  of  elbow  room,  is  like  a  lazy 
boy ;  it  will  play  and  curl  about  very  prettily,  but  will  do 
no  work.  We  must  put  some  sort  of  pressure,  therefore, 
upon  it — confine  it,  and  we  shall  soon  see  that,  by  strug- 
gling to  escape,  it  will  serve  our  purpose,  and  become  a 
most  obedient  workman.  We  have,  therefore,  only  to  put 
double  the  quantity  of  water  into  our  larger  vessel,  that  is, 
two  cubic  inches.  We  will  put  on  a  cover  tightly,  adding 
a  pipe  through  which  to  pour  in  the  water.  Soon  we  shall 
have  the  steam  formed  as  before;  but  it  has  no  longer  room 
enough,  and  out  it  comes  fizzing  and  roaring,  very  savage 
at  having  been  shut  up  in  so  small  a  cage.  And  we  can 
make  it  work  too,  for  if  we  set  up  a  little  fan-wheel  of  tin 
right  in  its  way,  we  shall  see  it  spin  round  merrily  enough ; 
or  if  we  cork  tte  tube  lightly,  we  shall  find  this  cork  soon 


FORCP:  OF  STEAM. 


coine  out  with  a  bang.  We  have,  in  fact,  already  con- 
structed a  steam-engine  and  a  steam-gun  on  a  small  scale. 
The  pressure  in  this  case  is,  indeed,  not  great,  but  what  it 
is  I  must  now  try  to  explain. 

The  air  or  atmosphere,  which  surrounds  us  on  all  sides, 
exercises  a  pressure  upon  everything  of  15  Ibs.  on  every 
square  inch  of  surface.  If  our  little  cubical  inch  box  of 
tin  had  no  air  inside  it,  and  no  steam,  but  was  absolutely 
empty,  each  side,  and  top,  and  bottom  would  have  15  Ibs. 
pressure  upon  it  ;  which  would  be  evident  if  it  were  not 
very  strong,  for  it  would  sink  in  on  all  sides  directly,  just 
as  much  as  if  you  were  to  add  a  weight  of  15  Ibs.  when  it 
was  full  of  air,  as  it  would  ordinarily  be. 

When  I  spoke  of  the  larger  box  being  exactly  filled 
with  steam  from  the  evaporation  of  the  cubic  inch  of  water 
poured  from  the  smaller  box,  I  supposed  it  empty  of  air. 
The  steam  from  that  quantity  of  water,  occupying  the  place 
of  the  air,  would  also  be  of  the  same  pressure,  15  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  of  surface  ;  and  as  this  only  balances  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere,  which  would  be,  in  such  a  case, 
pressing  in  on  all  sides,  the  steam  would  not  show  any 
pressure  ;  just  as,  if  you  put  equal  weights  into  each  scale  of 
a  balance,  the  beam  of  it  would  remain  horizontal,  neither 
scale  showing  to  the  outward  senses  that  it  had  any  pres- 
sure upon  it.  But  in  the  second  case,  we  have  doubled  the 
quantity  of  steam,  but  compelled  it  to  occupy  the  same 


230  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

space;  therefore  we  have  now  real,  visible  pressure  of  15  Ibs. 
upon  each  square  inch ;  and  if  we  again  halve  the  space 
which  the  steam  has  to  occupy,  or  double  the  quantity  of 
water,  we  shall  obtain  a  pressure  of  30  Ibs.  beyond  Mie 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

Let  us  now  disregard  atmospheric  pressure,  and  fit  up 
such  an  apparatus  as  Fig.  56,  D.  Here  we  have  first  our 
small  box,  closed  on  all  sides,  and  from  it  a  small  tube 
rising  and  entering  into  the  bottom  of  a  larger  one,  which  is 
very  smooth  in  the  inside  ;  in  this  is  a  round  plate  or  disc, 
called  a  piston,  which  fits  the  tube  nicely,  but  not  so  tight 
as  to  prevent  it  from  moving  up  and  down  easily ;  and  let 
a  weight  of  15  Ibs.  be  laid  upon  it.  Let  us  suppose  this 
large  tube  or  cylinder  to  be  1700  times  larger  than  the 
cubic  inch  box,  into  which  water  is  to  be  poured  till  full. 
Now  we  heat  it  as  before,  and  when  212°  of  heat  are 
attained  by  the  water  (which  is  its  boiling-point)  when  it 
begins  to  be  converted  into  steam,  the  piston  will  be  seen 
to  rise,  and  will  gradually  ascend,  until  quite  at  the  top  of 
the  tube,  because  the  steam  required  exactly  that  amount 
of  room. 

Now  we  have  arrived  at  the  same  conclusion  which  we 
came  to  before ;  for  you  see  that  not  only  has  the  cubic  inch  of 
water  become  a  cubic  foot  of  steam  (about  1700  to  1 728  of  its 
former  volume),  but  it  is  supporting  15  Ibs.  weight,  which 
represents  that  of  the  atmosphere,  and  if  we  could  get  rid 


FORCE  OF  STEAM.  231 


of  the  latter,  a  solid  weight  of  15  Ibs.  would  be  thus  sup- 
ported. Now,  still  neglecting  the  atmospheric  pressure, 
suppose  instead  of  15  Ibs.  we  add  another  15  Ibs.,  making 
the  weight  30  lbs.?  down  goes  our  piston  again,  and  stands 
at  about  half  the  height  it  did  before.  We  have  thus,  as  we 
had  previously,  a  cubic  foot  of  steam  made  to  occupy  half  a 
cubic  foot  of  space,  giving  a  pressure  (which  is  the  same  as 
supporting  a  weight)  of  30  Ibs. 

I  ought,  perhaps,  to  add  in  this  place,  however,  that 
ander  30  Ibs.  pressure,  or  atmospheric  weight  and  15  Ibs. 
additional,  the  water  would  not  become  steam  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  212°,  but  it  would  have  to  be  made  much  hotter, 
until  a  thermometer  placed  in  it  would  show  252°. 

So  far  we  have  seen  what  a  cubic  inch  of  water  will  do 
when  heated  to  a  certain  degree,  and  at  first  sight  it  may 
not  seem  a  great  deal.  Far  from  being  light  work,  how- 
ever, this  is  actually  equal  to  the  work  of  raising  a  weight 
of  1  ton  a  foot  high.  Let  us  prove  the  fact.  Suppose  the 
tube  or  cylinder  to  be  square  instead  of  round,  and  that 
its  surface  is  exactly  1  square  inch,  how  can  we  give  1700 
times  the  room  which  is  occupied  by  the  water  ?  It  is  plain 
that  the  piston  must  rise  1700  inches  in  the  1-inch  cylinder 
or  tube,  carrying  with  it,  as  before,  its  weight  of  15  Ibs. — 
that  is,  it  has  raised  15  Ibs.  1700  inches,  or  about  142  feet. 
But  this  is  the  same  as  15  times  142  feet  raised  1  foot, 
which  is  2130  Ibs.  raised  1  foot,  very  nearly  a  ton,  the  latter 


232  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

being  2240  Ibs.  So,  after  all,  you  see  that  our  little  cubic 
inch  of  water  is  a  very  good  labourer,  doing  a  great  deal  of 
work  if  we  supply  him  with  sufficient  warmth. 

Now  this  is  exactly  the  principle  of  the  ordinary  steam- 
engine  :  we  have  a  cylinder  in  which  a  piston  is  very  nicely 
fitted,  and  we  put  this  cylinder  in  connection  with  a  boiler, 
the  steam  from  which  drives  the  piston  from  one  end  of  the 
cylinder  to  the  other.  In  the  first  engine  that  was  made, 
the  cylinder  actually  occupied  the  very  position  it  does  in 
our  sketch ;  it  was  made  to  stand  upon  the  top  of  the  boiler, 
a  tap  being  added  in  the  short  pipe  below  the  cylinder,  so 
that  the  steam  could  be  admitted  or  shut  off  at  pleasure. 
But  it  is  plain  that  although  our  little  engine  has  done  some 
work,  it  has  stopped  at  a  certain  point ;  there  is  the  piston 
at  the  top,  and  it  cannot  go  any  farther ;  we  must  get  it 
down  again  before  it  can  repeat  its  labour. 

How  would  you  do  this,  boys  ?  Push  it  down,  eh  ?  If  yon 
did,  you  would  find  it  spring  up  again  when  you  removed 
your  hand,  just  as  if  there  were  underneath  it  a  coiled  steel 
spring ;  by  which,  however,  you  would  learn  practically 
what  is  meant  by  the  elasticity  of  steam.  Besides  this,  if 
you  push  it  down,  you  become  the  workman,  and  the  engine 
is  only  the  passive  recipient  of  your  own  labour.  Try 
another  plan;  remove  the  lamp,  and  see  the  result — 
gradually,  very  gradually,  the  piston  begins  to  descend. 

Take  a  squirt  or  syringe,  and  squirt  cold  water  against 


THE  FIRST  ENGINE  CONSTRUCTED.         233 

the  apparatus.  Presto!  down  it  goes,  now  very  quickly  in- 
deed, and  is  soon  at  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder.  But  we 
may  as  well  try  to  get  useful  work  done  by  the  descent,  of 
the  piston  as  well  as  by  its  ascent. 

Set  it  up  like  Fig.  56,  E.  Here  is  a  rod  or  beam,  b  a  c, 
the  middle  of  which  is  supported  like  that  of  a  pair  of 
scales.  From  one  end  we  hang  a  scale,  and  place  in  it  15 
Ibs. ;  and  as  the  piston  sinks  the  weight  is  raised,  and  exactly 
the  same  work  is  done  as  before.  Thus  was  the  first  engine 
constructed;  but  instead  of  the  scale-pan  and  weight,  a 
pump-rod  was  attached,  and  as  the  piston  descended  in  the 
cylinder  this  rod  was  raised,  and  the  water  drawn  from  the 
well.  This,  however,  was  not  called  .a  steam-engine,  because 
the  work  is  not  really  the  effect  of  the  steam,  which  is  only 
used  to  produce  what  is  called  a  vacuum  (i.e.,  an  empty 
space,  devoid  of  air)  under  the  piston.  In  fact,  the  up-stroke 
of  the  piston  was  only  partly  caused  by  steam,  and  the  rod 
of  the  pump  was  weighted,  which  helped  to  draw  it  up. 

I  must  get  you  to  understand  this  clearly,  so  that  the 
principle  may  become  plain — "  clear  as  mud,"  as  Paddy 
would  say.  I  told  you  that  the  air  pressed  on  every  square 
inch  of  surface  with  a  force  of  about  15  Ibs.  We  do  not 
feel  it,  because  we  are  equally  pressed  on  all  sides — from 
within  as  well  as  from  without — so  that  atmospheric  pres- 
sure is  balanced.  Sometimes  this  is  a  very  good  thing. 
We  should,  I  think,  hardly  like  to  carry  about  the  huge 


»34  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

weight  pressing  upon  our  shoulders,  if  something  did  not 
counteract  it  for  us,  so  that  we  cannot  feel  it.  Indeed,  if 
it  were  otherwise,  we  should  become  flat  as  pancakes  in  no 
time — "totally  chawed  up." 

But  sometimes  we  should  prefer  to  get  rid  of  the  ah 
altogether — and  I  can  tell  you  it  is  not  easy  to  do  so,  unless 
we  put  something  into  its  place ;  and  we  want  perhaps 
simply  to  get  rid  of  it,  and  make  use  of  the  room  it  occu- 
pied. We  require  to  do  this  in  the  present  instance,  and 
in  fact  we  have  just  done  it.  If  the  whole  space  below  the 
piston,  when  we  begin  to  work,  is  filled  with  water,  it  is 
plain  there  can  be  no  air  below  it ;  and  when  the  steam  has 
raised  it,  there  is  still  no  air  below  it,  but  only  steam. 
We  then  apply  cold  to  the  cylinder  by  removing  the  lamp 
and  squirting  cold  water  against  it,  which  has  the  effect  oi 
reducing  the  steam  to  water  again,  which  will  occupy  1 
inch  of  space  only.  We,  therefore,  now  have  a  space  of 
1600  cubic  inches  with  neither  air  nor  water  in  it;  and 
so,  if  the  piston  is  1  inch  in  size,  there  will  be  the  15  Ib. 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  upon  it,  and  nothing  below  to 
balance  it,  for  we  have  formed  a  vacuum  below  it,  and  of 
course  this  15  Ib.  weight  will  press  it  rapidly  down.  It  did 
so;  and  we  therefore  were  enabled  to  raise  15  Ib.  in  the 
scale-pan.  You  will  know,  therefore,  henceforth,  exactly 
what  I  mean  by  a  vacuum  and  atmospheric  pressure.  It  is, 
you  see,  the  latter  which  does  the  work  when  a  vacuum  in 


ATMOSPHERIC  ENGINE.  235 

formed  as  above ;  but  you  can  easily  understand  that  it 
might  be  possible  to  use  both  the  atmospheric  pressure  and 
the  pressure  of  steam  as  well,  which  is  done  in  the  con- 
densing steam-engine. 

In  the  earliest  engine,  called  the  Atmospheric  for  the 
reason  above  stated,  the  top  of  the  cylinder  was  left  entirely 
open,  as  in  our  sketch ;  but  the  condensing  water  was 
not  applied  outside  the  cylinder,  but  descended  from  a 
cistern  above,  and  formed  a  little  jet"  or  fountain  in  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder  at  the  very  moment  that  the  piston 
reached  its  highest  point.  Down  it,  therefore,  came,  draw- 
ing up  the  pump-rod.  When  at  the  bottom  the  jet  of 
water  ceased.  Steam  was  again  formed  below  the  piston, 
which  raised  it  as  before ;  and  the  process  being  repeated, 
the  required  work  was  done.  A  boy,  to  turn  a  couple  of 
taps,  to  let  on  or  off  the  water  or  steam,  was  all  the  attend- 
ance required. 

For  some  time  the  atmospheric  engine,  the  invention  of 
Newcomen,  was  the  only  one  in  general  use ;  and  even  this1* 
was,  in  those  days  (1705-1720),  so  difficult  to  construct 
that  its  great  power  was  comparatively  f  eldom  resorted  to, 
even  for  pumping,  for  which  it  was  nevertheless  admirably 
suited.  The  huge  cylinder  required  to  be  accurately  bored, 
while  there  were  no  adequate  means  of  doing  such  work ; 
and  although  the  piston  was  "packed,"  by  being  wound 
round  with  hemp,  it  was  difficult  to  keep  it  sufficiently 


t36  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


tight,  yet  at  the  same  time  to  give  it  adequate  "  play." 
Then,  another  drawback  appeared,  which,  though  of  less 
importance  in  some  districts,  absolutely  prevented  the 
introduction  of  this  engine  into  many  parts  of  the  country. 
The  consumption  of  coal  was  enormous  in  proportion  to 
the  power  gained.  We  can  easily  understand  the  reason  t,i 
this,  when  we  consider  the  means  used  for  producing  a 
vacuum  in  the  cylinder  below  the  piston.  The  water  intro- 
duced for  the  purpose,  chilled,  not  only  the  steam,  but 
cylinder  and  piston  also ;  and  therefore,  before  a  second 
stroke  could  be  made,  these  had  to  be  again  heated  to  the 
temperature  of  boiling  water.  The  coal  required  for  the 
latter  purpose  was  therefore  wasted,  causing  a  dead  loss  to 
the  proprietor. 

So  matters  continued  for  some  time,  until  a  mathematical 
instrument-maker  of  Glasgow,  named  Watt,  about  the  year 
1760,  began  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  subject ;  and  having 
to  repair  a  model  of  Newcomen's  engine  belonging  to  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  the  idea  seems  to  have  first  struck 
him  of  condensing  the  steam  in  a  separate  vessel,  so  as  to 
avoid  cooling  the  cylinder  after  each  upward  stroke  of  the 
piston.  This  was  the  grand  secret  which  gave  the  first 
impetus  to  the  use  of  steam-engines  ;  and  from  that  day  to 
this  these  mighty  workmen,  whose  muscles  and  sinews 
never  become  weary,  have  been  gradually  attaining  perfec- 
tion. Yet  it  may  be  fairly  stated  that  the  most  modern 


JAMES   WATT'S  INVENTION.  237 

form  of  condensing  engine  in  use  is  but  an  improvement 
upon.  Watt's  in  details  of  construction  and  accuracy  of 
workmanship.  For  Watt  did  not  stand  still  in  his  work ; 
but  after  having  devised  a  separate  condenser,  he  further 
suggested  the  idea  of  closing  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  which 
had  hitherto  been  left  open  to  the  influence  of  the  atmos- 
phere ;  and  rejecting  the  latter  as  the  means  of  giving 
motion  to  the  piston,  he  made  use  of  the  expansive  power 
of  steam  on  each  •  side  of  the  piston  alternately,  while  a 
vacuum  was  also  alternately  produced  on  either  side  of  it 
by  the  condensation  of  the  steam. 

The  atmospheric  engine  was  thus  wholly  displaced. 
The  saving  of  fuel  in  the  working  of  the  machine  was  so 
great,  that  the  stipulation  of  the  inventor,  that  one-third 
of  the  money  so  saved  should  be  his,  raised  him  from 
comparative  poverty  to  affluence  in  a  very  short  time. 
Watt,  however,  had  still  to  contend  with  great  difficulties 
in  the  actual  construction  of  his  engines.  He  was  in  the 
same  "fix"  as  some  of  my  young  readers,  who  are  very 
desirous  to  make  some  small  model,  but  have  little  else 
than  a  pocket-knife  and  gimblet  to  do  it  with.  For  there 
were  no  large  steam-lathes,  slide-rests,  planing  and  boring 
machines,  procurable  in  those  days,  and  even  the  heaviest 
work  had  to  be  done  by  hand,  if  indeed  those  can  be  called 
hand-tools  which  had  frequently  to  be  sat  upon  to  keep 
them  up  to  cut.  It  was  therefore  impossible  for  Watt  to 


23 S  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

carry  out  his  designs  with  anything  like  accuracy  of  work- 
manship, else  it  is  probable  that  he  would  have  advanced 
the  steam-engine  even  further  towards  perfection  than  he 
did.  In  spite  of  these  drawbacks,  however,  this  great 
inventor  lived  to  see  his  merits  universally  acknowledged, 
and  to  witness  the  actual  working  of  very  many  of  these 
wonderful  and  useful  machines. 

The  first  necessity  which  occurred  from  closing  the 
cylinder  at  both  ends  was  the  devising  some  means  to 
allow  the  piston-rod  to  pass  and  repass  through  one  end 
without  permitting  the  steam  to  escape.  This  was  effected 
by  a  stuffing-box,  which  is  represented  in  Fig.  57,  A,  B, — 
the  first  being  a  sectional  drawing,  which  you  must  learn 
to  understand,  as  it  is  the  only  way  to  show  the  working 
details  of  any  piece  of  machinery.  We  have  here  a 
cylinder  cover,  a,  which  bolts  firmly  to  the  top  of  the 
cylinder,  there  being  a  similar  one  (generally  without  any 
stuffing-box)  at  the  other  end  or  bottom  of  the  same.  On 
the  top  of  this  you  will  observe  another  piece,  which  is 
marked  b,  and  which  is  indeed  part  of  the  first  and  cast  in 
one  piece  with  it.  Through  the  cylinder  cover,  a,  is  bored 
a  hole  of  the  exact  size  of  the  rod  attached  to  the  piston, 
which  has  to  pass  through  it,  but  whic'n  hole,  however  well 
made,  would  allow  the  steam  to  leak  considerably  during 
the  working  of  the  piston-rod. 

To  obviate  this,  the  part  b  is  bored  out  larger,  and  has 


THE  STUFFING-BOX, 


239 


a  cup-shaped  cavity  formed  in  it,  as  you  will  see  by  in- 
specting the  drawings.  Into  this  cavity  fits  the  gland,  c, 
which  also  has  a  hole  in  it,  to  allow  of  the  passage  of  the 
piston-rod.  This  gland  is  made  to  fit  into  the  cavity  in  b 


Fig.  57. 

as  accurately  as  possible  ;  and  it  can  be  held  by  bolts  as  In 
the  fig.  A,  or  be  screwed  on  the  surface  as  shown  at  B,  in 
which  latter  case  the  greater  part  of  the  interior  of  b  ia 
screwed  with  a  similar  thread.  The  piston-rod  being  in 
place,  hemp  is  wound  round  it  (or  india-rubber  packing- 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


rings  are  fitted  over  it),  and  the  gland  is  then  fitted  in 
upon  it,  and  screwed  down,  thus  squeezing  the  hemp  or 
rubber  tightly,  and  compelling  it  to  embrace  the  piston- 
rod  so  closely,  that  leakage  of  steam  is  wholly  prevented. 
Whenever  you  have,  therefore,  to  prevent  steam  or  water 
escaping  round  a  similar  moving-rod  in  modelling  pumps 
or  engines,  you  will  have  to  effect  it  in  this  way.  The 
piston  was  also  packed  with  hemp  or  tow,  either  loosely- 
plaited  or  simply  wound  round  the  metal  in  a  groove 
formed  for  the  purpose.  In  Fig.  57,  C  and  D,  I  have 
added  drawings  of  a  piston,  so  made,  partly  for  the  purpose 
of  again  explaining  the  nature  of  sectional  drawings.  In 
this  one,  C,  you  are  shown  the  end  of  the  piston-rod 
passing  through  the  piston,  and  fastened  by  a  screwed  nut 
below,  a  shoulder  preventing  the  rod  from  being  drawn 
through  by  the  iction  of  this  nut.  The  hemp  packing  is 
also  shown  it  section,  but  in  the  drawing  D  the  groove  is 
left,  for  the  sake  of  clearness. 

In  all  your  smaller  models  you  will  have  to  pack  your 
piston  in  this  way,  except  in  those  where  you  entirely 
give  up  all  idea  of  power.  The  little  engines,  for  example, 
r,old  at  $1  and  upwards,  with  oscillating  cylinders,  have 
neither  packed  pistons  nor  stuffing-boxes  ;  the  friction  of 
those  would  stop  them,  and  escape  of  steam  is  of  no  great 
consequence.  It  will,  however,  be  found  advantageous  tc 
turn  a  few  shallow  grooves  round  these  unpacked  pistons 


NE  WC OMEN 'S  ENGINE.  24 . 

after  they  have  been  made  to  fit  their  cylinders  as  accu- 
rately as  possible,  like  fig.  C.  These  fill  with  water  from 
the  condensation  of  steam,  which  always  occurs  at  first 
until  the  engine  gets  hot ;  and  thus  a  kind  of  packing  is 
made  which  is  fairly  effectual. 

In  Fig.  58  I  have  given  a  drawing  of  Newcomen's 
engine,  in  case  you  would  like  to  make  a  model  of  one ; 
but  I  do  not  think  it  will  repay  you  as  well  for  your  labour 
as  some  others.  There  is  the  difficulty  of  the  cistern  of 
cold  water  and  the  waste- well ;  and  the  condensation  of  the 
steam  is  a  troublesome  affair  in  a  small  model ,  so  that,  on 
the  whole,  I  should  not  recommend  you  to  begin  youi 
attempts  at  model-making  with  the  construction  of  one 
of  these.  I  shall,  however,  add  a  few  directions  for  this 
work,  because  what  I  have  to  say  about  boring,  screwing, 
and  so  forth,  will  apply  to  all  other  models  you  may  desire 
to  construct. 

The  cylinder,  in  this  case,  will  be  more  easily  made  by 
obtaining  a  piece  of  brass  tubing,  which  can  be  had  of  any 
size,  from  3  or  4  inches  diameter  to  the  size  of  a  small  quill. 
The  first  you  will  often  use  for  boilers,  the  latter  for  steam 
or  water  pipes.  You  can  also  obtain  at  the  model  makers— 
Bateman,  for  instance,  of  High  Holborn — small  taps  and 
screws,  and  cocks  for  the  admission  of  water  and  steam, 
and  all  kinds  of  little  requisites  which  you  would  find 
great  difficulty  in  making,  and  which  would  cost  you  more 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  BOILER.  243 

in  spoiling  and  muddling  than  you  would  spend  in  buying 
them  ready  made. 

The  drawing  is  given  on  purpose  to  show  the  best  and 
easiest  arrangement  for  a  model.  It  has  all  parts,  there- 
fore, arranged  with  a  view  to  simplicity.  A  is  the  boiler 
made  of  a  piece  of  3-inch  brass  tubing,  as  far  as  a,  b,  c,  dt 
the  bottom  being  either  of  brass  or  copper  at  the  level  of 
a,  b ;  the  upper  domed  part  may  be  made  by  hammering 
a  piece  of  sheet  brass,  copper,  or  even  tin,  with  a  round- 
ended  boxwood  mallet  upon  a  hollowed  boxwood  block,  of 
which  T,  T  is  a  section.  You  should  make  one  of  these  if 
it  is  your  intention  to  make  models  your  hobby,  as  it  will 
enable  you  to  do  several  jobs  of  the  same  kind  as  the  pre- 
sent. Probably  you  will  not  be  able  to  make  the  dome  semi- 
circular, or  rather  hemispherical ;  but  at  all  events,  make  it 
as  deeply  cupped  as  you  can — after  which,  turn  down  the 
extreme  edge  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  all  round  to  fit  the 
cupped  part  exactly.  This  requires  a  good  deal  of  care  and 
some  skill.  If  you  find  that  you  cannot  manage  it,  make 
your  boiler  with  a  flat  top  instead.  Whichever  way  you 
make  it,  a  very  good  joint  to  connect  the  parts  is  that 
shown  in  section  at  V.*  The  edge  of  the  lower  part  is 
turned  outwards  all  round ;  that  of  the  upper  part  is  also 
turned  outwards,  first  of  all  to  double  the  width  of  the 
other,  and  is  then  bent  over  again,  first  with  a  pair  of  pliers 

*  The  parts  so  jointed  are  highly  exaggerated  ;  when  hammered  down,  the 
joint  only  forms  a  light  beading. 


244  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

and  afterwards  with  a  hammer,  a  hlock  or  support  being 
placed  underneath  it.  All  this  is  done  by  the  manufac- 
turer with  a  stamping  machine  on  purpose,  and  would  be 
completed  by  the  Birmingham  brass-workers  before  I  could 
write  the  description.  It  can,  however,  be  done  without 
any  more  tools  than  shown. 

You  will  often  need  a  tinman's  boxwood  mallet  with  one 
rounded  end  and  one  flat  one,  which,  of  course,  you  can  now 
turn  for  yourself,  as  it  is  an  easy  bit  of  work.  With  the 
rounded  end  you  can  cup  any  round  piece  of  tin ;  but  it 
requires  gentle  work ;  do  it  gradually  by  hammering  the 
centre  more  than  the  edges.  I  will  show  you  presently  how 
to  do  similar  work  by  spinning  in  the  lathe,  which  is  a 
curious  but  tolerably  easy  method  of  making  hollow  articles 
of  many  kinds  from  round  discs  of  metal  without  any  seam. 

After  you  have  hammered  the  joint  of  the  upper  and 
middle  parts  together,  you  must  solder  them  all  round  with 
tinman's  solder.  For  this  purpose  you  require  a  soldering- 
iron  represented  at  W.  This  is  a  rod  of  iron,  flattened  and 
split  at  the  end,  holding  between  the  forked  part  a  piece  of 
copper,  which  is  secured  to  the  iron  by  rivets.  I  should  not 
recommend  a  heavy  one,  not  so  heavy  nearly  as  what  you 
may  see  at  any  blacksmith's  or  tinman's  shop,  because  your 
work  will  be  generally  light,  and  such  irons  are  all  top  heavy 
to  use.  The  end,  which  may  be  curved  over  as  shown,  will 
require  to  be  tinned,  for  without  this  it  will  not  work  a<  all 


THE  ART  OF  SOLDERING.  245 

well.  File  the  end  bright,  and  heat  it  in  the  fire  nearly  red 
hot.  Get  a  common  brick,  and  with  an  old  knife  or  anything 
else,  make  a  hollow  place  in  it — a  kind  of  long-cupped  recess 
like  a  mussel  shell,  if  you  know  what  that  is,  and  put  a  little 
rosin  into  it.  Take  your  iron  from  the  fire,  and  holding  it 
down  close  to  the  brick,  touch  it  with  a  strip  of  solder,  which 
will  melt  and  run  into  the  cavity.  Now  rub  the  iron  well  in 
the  solder  and  rosin,  rub  it  pretty  hard  upon  the  brick,  and 
presently  you  will  see  it  covered  with  bright  solder,  from 
which  wipe  what  remains  in  drops  with  a  piece  of  tow. 
The  iron  is  now  fit  for  immediate  use ;  but  remember,  the 
first  time  you  heat  it  red-hot,  you  will  burn  off  the  tinning, 
and  you  must  file  it  bright  again,  and  repeat  the  process 
So  when  you  want  to  solder,  heat  the  iron  in  a  clean  fire, 
until,  when  you  hold  it  a  foot  from  your  nose,  you  find  it 
pretty  warm;  and  avoid  a  red  heat.  You  will  now  find, 
that  when  the  soldering-iron  is  hot,  it  will  not  only  melt 
but  pick  up  the  drop  of  solder ;  and  as  you  draw  it  slowly 
along  a  joint  (previously  sprinkled  with  powdered  rosin,  or 
wetted  with  chloride  of  zinc,  or  with  Baker's  soldering 
fluid),  the  solder  will  gradually  leave  the  iron,  and  attach 
itself  to  the  work  in  a  thinly-spread,  even  coat. 

The  secret  of  soldering  is  to  have  the  iron  well-heated, 
and  wiped  clean  with  a  bit  of  tow,  and  to  apply  it  along 
the  joint  so  slowly  and  steadily  that  the  tin  or  other  metal 
Trill  become  hot  enough  just  to  melt  solder.  Try  to  solder, 


246  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

for  instance,  a  thick  lump  of  brass  ;  file  it  bright  if  at  all 
tarnished — for  this  must  invariably  be  done  with  all  metals. 
You  will  be  unable  to  do  it  at  first,  for  the  moment  the 
solder  touches  it,  it  will  be  chilled,  and  rest  in  lumps,  which 
you  can  knock  off  directly  when  cold.  Now  place  the  brass 
on  the  fire  for  a  few  seconds  until  hot,  and  try  again  ;  the 
solder  will  flow  readily  as  the  iron  passes  along  it,  for  it  is 
kept  up  to  the  melting-point  until  it  has  fairly  adhered. 
This  is  why  in  heavy  work  a  large  iron  is  required ;  it 
retains  heat  longer,  and  imparts  more  of  it  to  the  metal  to 
be  soldered.  But  you  will  find  it  often  better  to  use  a  light 
soldering-iron,  and  to  place  the  brass-casting  upon  the  bar 
of  the  grate  for  a  short  time.  You  may,  indeed,  often  work 
without  any  soldering-iron  as  follows  : — 

Heat  the  pieces  to  be  soldered  (suppose  them  castings 
and  not  thin  sheets  of  metal)  until  they  will  melt  solder. 
Take  a  stick  of  the  latter,  and  just  dip  it  in  one  of  the  solder- 
ing solutions  named,  and  rub  it  upon  the  work  previously 
brightened.  The  solder  will  adhere  to  both  such  pieces. 
Now,  while  still  hot,  put  them  together  and  screw  in  a  vice, 
or  keep  them  pinched  in  any  way  for  a  few  minutes,  and 
you  will  find  them  perfectly  secured.  In  making  chucks 
for  the  lathe,  and  in  forming  many  parts  of  your  models, 
you  will  find  it  advantageous  to  work  in  this  way ;  but, 
notwithstanding,  you  will  often  require  a  light  soldering- 
iron,  and  sometimes  also  a  blowpipe,  which  I  shall  likewise 


THE  STOP-COCA'.  247 

teach  you  to  use,  as  also  how  to  make  a  neat  little  fire-placa 
or  furnace  to  stand  on  your  bench  by  which  to  heat  the  iron. 

I  must  now  suppose  that  you  have  carefully  soldered  the 
dome  to  the  middle  of  your  boiler ;  and  as  the  solder  will 
be  underneath,  the  joint  will  be  concealed  even  if  (as  is 
likely)  you  should  not  have  made  a  very  neat  piece  of  work. 
Before  you  put  on  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  you  will  have 
to  make  two  holes  in  the  top — one  for  the  steain-pipe 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  the  other  for  the 
safety-valve  also  three-eighths — because  this  will  require  a 
plug  of  brass  to  be  soldered  in,  which  plug  will  have  a  hole 
drilled  through  it  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch  diameter.  These 
maybe  punched  through  from  the  inside,  or  drilled;  they  are 
easily  made,  but  should  be  as  round  and  even  as  possible. 

Take  a  piece  of  three-eighths-inch  tubing,  with  a  stop- 
cock soldered  into  the  middle  of  it.  I  shall  suppose  you 
have  bought  this.  It  need  not  be  over  an  inch  in  length 
altogether ;  and  you  must  put  it  through  the  hole  in  the  top 
of  the  boiler,  and  solder  it  round  on  the  inside  of  the  same. 
The  nearer  you  can  get  the  stop-cock  to  the  bottom  of  the 
cylinder  the  better  the  engine  will  work,  because  the  steam 
will  have  to  rise  through  whatever  water  is  left  in  this  pipe 
from  the  jet  used  to  cool  the  steam.  You  will  see  that  it 
cannot  run  off  by  the  pipe  C  into  the  pump  well,  like  that 
which  collects  in  the  cylinder  itself.  In  a  real  engine  the 
steam-tap  was  a  flat  plate  which  slid  to  and  fro  sideways, 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


level  with  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  ;  but  this  you  would 
not  make  easily  at  present. 

The  plug  for  the  safety-valve  you  must  turn  out  of  n 
little  lump  of  brass.  It  must  be  about  three-eighths  of  ai. 
inch  long  ;  and  you  must  drill  a  quarter-inch  hole  through 
it,  and  countersink  one  end  of  the  hole  (that  is,  make  it 
wider  and  conical  by  turning  a  rose-bit  or  larger  drill  round 
in  it  a  few  times),  to  make  a  nice  seat,  as  it  is  called,  for  the 
valve  itself,  which  need  not  be  now  attended  to.  Remem- 
ber you  can  buy  at  Bateman's,  or  any  model-maker's  in 
London,  beautiful  safety-valves  ready-made,  as  well  as  any 
part  of  a  model  engine  that  you  cannot  make  yourself; 
and  indeed  it  is  so  far  a  good  plan  at  first  that  it  saves  you 
from  becoming  tired  and  disgusted  with  your  work,  owing 
to  repeated  failures.  If  you  buy  them,  therefore,  you  must 
do  so  before  you  make  the  holes  above  alluded  to,  but  in 
some  respects  it  will  be  more  to  your  advantage  to  try  and 
make  all  the  details  for  yourself.  I  cannot  call  it  making 
un  engine,  if,  like  many,  you  buy  all  the  parts  and  have 
little  left  to  do  but  screw  them,  or  solder  them,  together. 
Don't  do  this,  or  you  will  never  become  a  modeller. 

Your  boiler  from  c  to  a  is,  in  height,  maybe  2  inches, 
the  dome  1^  or  thereabout.  This  will  slip  inside  the  part 
that  you  see  in  the  drawing,  and  which  I  here  sketch  again 
eeparately.* 

*  The  bottom  joint  must  therefore  be  hammered  close  ;  the  upper  one  will 
becorne  a  ledge  for  the  boiler  to  rest  on. 


THE  BOILER  DISSECTED. 


249 


Fig.  59. 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


A  is  the  boiler  lifted  out  of  B,  the  outer  case  or  stand, 
which  you  can  make  out  of  tin,  and  paint  to  imitate  bricks. 
It  is  almost  a  pity  to  waste  sheet-brass  upon  it,  because  it 
is  not  rery  important,  its  object  being  only  to  carry  the 
boiler.  It  is  like  D  before  being  folded  round  and  fastened 
(not  with  solder,  which  would  soon  melt,  but)  by  a  double 
fold  of  the  joint,  similar  to  that  which  you  made  round  the 
boiler  itself,  but  turned  over  once  more  and  hammered 
down.  The  holes  are  punched  with  any  round  or  square 
punch  with  a  flat  end,  and  are  intended  to  give  more  air  to 
the  lamp  C,  which  should  have  three  wicks,  or  two  at  the 
least,  to  keep  up  a  good  supply  of  steam.  I  have  shown 
the  flat  piece  of  tin  with  three  legs  only,  which  is  as  well 
as  if  it  were  made  with  four;  but  you  can  please  yourself  in 
this  matter. 

The  lamp  I  need  hardly  tell  you  how  to  make,  for  it  is 
easier  than  the  boiler,  being  merely  a  round  tin  box,  in  the 
top  of  which  are  soldered  three  little  bits  of  brass  tube  for 
the  wicks,  and  a  fourth  for  the  oil  to  be  poured  in  —  the 
latter  being  stopped  with  a  cork. 

You  should  remember  that  no  soldered  work,  like  the  in- 
side of  the  boiler,  must  come  in  contact  with  the  heat  of 
the  lamp,  unless  it  has  water  about  it,  because  if  the  water 
should  at  any  time  entirely  boil  away,  the  boiler  will  leak 
and  be  spoiled.  A  little  care  in  this  respect  will  insure 
the  preservation  of  a  model  engine  for  a  long  time;  but 


HOW  TO  MAKE  A  CYLINDER.  251 

boys  generally  destroy  them  quickly  by  careless  treat- 
ment. 

Let  us  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  cylinder.  Cut  off 
a  piece  of  three-quarter-inch  brass  tube,  2^  inches  in 
length — you  can  do  this  with  a  three-square  file — mount  it 
in  the  lathe  by  making  a  chuck  like  Fig.  59,  E,  of  wood, 
the  flange  of  which  is  just  able  to  go  tightly  into  one  end 
of  the  tube.  The  other  end  will  probably  centre  upon  the 
conical  point  of  the  back  poppit,  over  which  it  will  go 
for  only  a  certain  distance.  If  your  back  centre  will  not 
answer  on  account  of  its  small  size,  you  must  make  a 
similar  flange  to  go  into  the  other  end ;  but  take  care  that 
when  the  back  centre  is  placed  against  it,  it  runs  truly. 
If  the  chuck  is  well  made,  it  will  do  so.  You  can  now 
with  any  pointed  tool  turn  off  the  ends  of  the  tube  quite 
squarely  to  the  side ;  but  you  should  only  waste  one-quarter 
of  an  inch  altogether,  leaving  it  2%  inches  long.  When 
this  is  done,  take  it  out  of  the  lathe,  and  in  place  of  it, 
mount  a  disc  of  brass  rather  more  than  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  thick,  or  if  you  have  none  at  hand,  take  an  old  half- 
penny or  penny  piece,  which  is  of  copper,  and  lay  it  upon 
the  flat  face  of  a  wooden  chuck,  driving  four  nails  round 
its  edge  to  hold  it,  and  with  a  point-tool  cut  out  neatly  the 
centre,  of  a  size  to  fit  inside  your  tube.  You  will  scarcely, 
however,  effect  this  perfectly  without  further  turning;  so 
take  care  to  cut  it  too  large ;  but  before  you  cut  it  com- 


e52  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

pletely  through,  make  the  hole  for  the  tube  which  you 
soldered  into  the  top  of  the  boiler,  which  is  three-eighths 
diameter.  This  you  can  do  beautifully  in  the  lathe  with  a 
pointed  tool,  or  with  a  drill,  centred  against  the  point  of 
the  back  poppit,  as  I  showed  you  before. 

Cut  the  disc  quite  out  (too  large,  mind)  and  then  turn  a 
spindle  like  G,  mount  the  disc  upon  it  as  shown,  by  its 
central  hole,  and  turn  the  edge  with  a  graver  or  flat  tool, 
such  as  is  used  for  brass,  until  it  will  exactly  fit  the  brass 
tube.  You  can  cut  out  round  discs  of  one-eighth  or  one- 
fourth  sheet-brass  by  mounting  any  square  piece  on  a 
wooden  face  chuck,  keeping  it  down  by  four  nails  or 
screws,  and  then  with  a  point-tool  cutting  a  circle  in  it 
until  the  disc  falls  out.  You  will  often  save  time  by  so 
doing.  You  now  have  a  disc  of  brass  or  copper  with  a  hole 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  wide  in  it;  and  as  the  disc  is 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter  (i.e.,  six-eighths),  you 
will  have  three-eighths  remaining,  or  three-sixteenths,  each 
way  on  the  diameter  between  the  edge  of  the  hole  and  thai 
of  the  disc.  This  will  just  give  room  for  the  two  small 
holes  required,  one  on  each  side  of  the  central  one,  for  the 
pipes  from  the  cold-water  cistern  and  to  the  well  below  the 
pump.  These  must  both  be  of  brass ;  and  the  first  should 
be  turned  up  and  end  in  a  jet,  like  a  blowpipe,  so  as  to 
make  the  water  rise  in  a  spray  under  the  piston ;  the  othei 
should  be  as  long  as  can  be  conveniently  arranged. 


THE  PISTON-ROD.  253 

The  bottom  of  the  cold-water  cistern  is  drawn  a  little 
above  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  2£  inches  high.  A 
jet  would  theoretically  rise  in  the  cylinder  to  nearly  the 
height  of  the  level  of  water  in  the  cistern  ;  but  with  a  small 
pipe,  and  other  drawbacks  inseparable  from  a  model,  you 
must  not  reckon  on  more  than  about  half  that  height, 
which  should  be  sufficient  to  condense  the  steam.  The 
piston  had  better  be  nicely  fitted,  but  not  packed.  You 
cut  a  disc  of  brass  as  before,  drill  the  hole  for  the  piston, 
make  a  spindle,  or  put  in  the  piston-rod,  and  centre  this  as 
a  spindle,  which  is  the  best  plan,  and  then  with  a  flat  brass 
tool  turn  the  piston  accurately  to  fit  the  tube.  Or,  if  you 
think  it  easier,  or  wish  to  fasten  the  piston  with  a  nut,  as 
drawn,  you  can,  if  you  like,  turn  it  on  a  separate  spindle ; 
and  thirdly,  you  may  tap  the  hole  in  the  piston,  and  screw 
the  end  of  the  piston-rod.  The  great  thing  to  attend  to  is, 
to  turn  the  edge  of  the  piston  square  to  the  sides. 

For  the  piston-rod,  a  steel  knitting  needle  or  piece  of 
straight  iron  wire  will  do  very  well ;  but  it  will  have  to  be 
flattened  at  the  upper  end,  or  screwed  into  a  little  piece  of 
brass,  which  must  be  sawn  across  to  make  a  fork  by  which 
the  chain  can  be  attached  which  goes  over  the  beam.  Do 
not  solder  the  cistern  pipes  in  just  yet,  but  go  on  to  other 
parts. 

The  cistern  itself  can  be  made  out  of  any  tin  box.  A 
seidlitz -powder  box  will  answer  well,  or  you  can  make  on« 


254  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


about  that  size,  say  4  inches  long,  2£  wide,  and  2  deep. 
The  cistern  for  the  pump  will,  of  course,  require  to  be  the 
same  size  or  a  little  larger ;  it  may  stand  on  legs  or  be 
fastened  to  the  bed-plate  direct. 

This  bed-plate  is  shown  below  the  picture  of  the  engine. 
It  is  merely  an  oblong  plate  of  iron  one-sixteenth  inch  thick, 
jr  in  this  particular  engine  may  be  of  tin  neatly  fastened  to 
a  half-inch  mahogany  board,  which  will  keep  all  firm.  The 
white  places  show  the  position  of  the  boiler  and  of  the 
pump  cistern,  the  inner  rounds  indicating  the  lamp,  and 
pump,  and  cylinder.  The  square  is  merely  made  to  show 
a  boiler  of  that  shape,  which  some  prefer; — it  is  not  so 
good  as  a  cylindrical  one. 

Whenever  you  have  to  make  an  engine,  you  should  draw 
upon  the  bed-plate  the  position  of  each  part,  as  I  have  done 
here,  because  it  will  serve  you  as  a  guide  for  measurement 
of  the  several  pieces.  The  four  small  circles  at  S  S  show 
the  positions  of  the  legs  of  the  support  C,  which  carries 
the  beam.  In  the  drawing  only  two  are  given,  but  there 
would  be  a  similar  triangular  frame  upon  this  side.  This 
may  be  made  very  well  of  stout  brass  wire,  but  in  a  bought 
engine  it  would  be  a  casting  of  brass,  painted  or  filed 
bright. 

The  beam  itself  should  be  of  mahogany,  6  inches  long, 
half  an  inch  wide  (on  the  side),  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
thick.  The  curved  pieces  you  will  turn  as  a  ring  3  inchei 


THE  SAFETY-VALVE.  255 


diameter  with  a  square  groove  cut  in  the  edge  for  the 
chain.  You  can  then  saw  into  four,  and  use  two  of  these, 
morticing  the  strip  of  mahogany  neatly  into  them.  TheD 
finish  with  four  brass  wires,  as  shown,  which  will  keep  the 
curved  ends  stiff  and  give  a  finished  appearance.  The  pin 
in  the  centre  should  be  also  of  brass,  as  a  few  bright  bars 
and  studs  of  this  metal  upon  the  mahogany  give  a  hand- 
some look  to  the  engine. 

The  pump  will  be  of  brass  tube,  made  like  the  cylinder, 
but  the  bucket  may  be  of  boxwood,  and  so  may  the  lower 
valve,  each  being  merely,  a  disc  with  a  hole  in  it,  and  a 
leather  flap  to  rise  upwards.  The  bucket,  however,  should 
have  a  groove  turned  in  its  edge,  to  receive  a  ring  of  india- 
rubber,  or  a  light  packing  of  tow.  The  end  of  the  pump- 
rod  must  be  split  to  make  a  fork  like  Y,  to  allow  the  valve 
to  rise.  You  can  get  just  such  a  fork  ready  to  hand  out  of 
an  umbrella,  if  you  can  find  an  old  one ;  if  not,  and  you 
cannot  split  the  wire,  make  the  rod  rather  stouter,  and 
bend  it,  as  shown,  so  as  to  form  only  one  side  of  a  fork, 
which  will  probably  answer  the  same  purpose  in  so  light  a 
pump. 

The  valve  in  both  of  these  may  be  made  of  a  flap  of 
leather — bookbinder's  calf,  or  something  not  too  thick — 
and  it  may  be  fastened  at  one  edge  by  any  cement  that 
will  not  be  affected  by  water,  or  by  a  small  pin, — cut  off 
the  head  of  a  pin  with  half  an  inch  of  its  shank,  and  point 


256  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


it  up  to  form  a  small  tack.  If  the  valve-box  is  of  box- 
wood, you  must  drill  a  hole ; — you  may  make  it,  if  pre- 
ferred, of  softer  wood. 

There  is  no  support  shown  in  the  drawing  for  the  cold" 
water  cistern;  but  you  must  stand  it  on  four  stout  wires,  or 
on  a  wooden  (mahogany)  frame,  which  can  be  attached  to 
the  bed-plate.  As  this  last  is  always  of  some  importance, 
I  shall  add  it  again  in  this  place  (Fig.  60),  to  a  scale  of 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  the  foot,  showing  the  position 
of  each  part. 

Always  begin  with  a  centre  line  and  take  each  measure 
from  it,  and  draw  another  across  for  the  same  purpose,  at 
right  angles  to  the  first.  You  will  quickly  see  the  use  of 
this.  We  draw  two  lines  as  described  A,  B,  C,  D,  crossing 
in  o.  The  longest  is  the  centre  line  of  beam,  cylinder, 
and  pump.  The  beam  is  to  be  6  inches  long  to  the  outside 
of  the  middle  of  each  arc,  whence  the  chain  is  to  hang. 
We,  therefore,  from  the  centre  point,  set  off  3  inches  each 
way.  At  the  exact  3  inches  will  be  the. centres  of  the 
cylinder  and  pump ; — set  these  off,  therefore,  on  the  plan. 
The  end  of  the  tank  we  must  have  near  the  cylinder, 
because  we  have  to  bring  a  pipe  from  it  into  the  bottom 
of  the  cylinder.  Set  off,  therefore,  the  end  of  the  tank  2$ 
inches— i.e,  1|  on  each  side  of  the  central  line,  and  draw  it 
4  inches  in  length.  N  shows  the  position  of  the  pipe  close 
to  the  end  and  on  the  line.  The  centre  of  the  boiler  is  the 


o 


258  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

same  as  that  of  the  cylinder,  so  we  draw  a  circle  round  it 
with  a  radius  of  \\  inches,  which  gives  us  the  3-inch 
circle  of  the  boiler.  Then  we  may  set  off  equal  distances, 
N,  N,  for  the  extremeties  of  the  legs  of  the  frame  which 
is  to  support  the  beam,  and  we  complete  our  plan.  M  is 
the  waste  pipe,  and  K  is  the  opening  for  the  water  to  flow 
into  the  tank.  We  now  find,  therefore,  that  the  bed-plate 
must  be  13  inches  long  and  6  inches  wide  to  take  the 
engine  of  the  proposed  size,  and  we  may,  of  course,  extend 
this  a  little,  if  thought  desirable.  Mark  off  on  the  bed  all 
the  lines  of  the  plan  as  here  given,  and  always  start  any 
measurement  from  one  of  the  two  foundation  lines,  or  else, 
if  you  make  one  false  measure,  you  will  carry  it  on,  pro- 
bably increasing  the  amount  of  error  at  every  fresh 
measurement.  Let  this  be  with  you  a  rule  without  ex- 
ception. It  is  plain  that  if  you  work  all  parts  of  your 
engine  to  size,  you  can  set  it  up  OB  the  marked  bed-plate 
with  perfect  accuracy. 

The  description  I  have  given  will  not  only  enable  you  to 
make  a  Newcomen  engine  with  very  little  difficulty,  but 
will  give  you  an  insight  generally  into  this  kind  of  work ; 
and  you  will  learn,  too,  a  practical  lesson  in  soldering,  turn- 
ing, and  fitting.  I  must,  nevertheless,  help  you  a  little  in 
putting  your  work  together. 

You  had  better  begin  by  soldering  into  the  bottom  of  the 
cylinder  the  end  of  the  steam-pipe^  which  you  have  already 


PUTTING  TOGETHER.  259 


fixed  upright  in  the  middle  of  the  dome  of  the  boiler,  taking 
care  that  it  stand  ,quarely  across  the  pipe,  or  your  cylinder 
will  not  be  upright.  Then  place  the  boiler  in  position,  and 
you  may  fix  it  by  turning  out  slightly  the  ends  of  the  legs, 
and  putting  a  tack  through,  or  screwing,  if  the  bed-plate  is 
of  iron, — or  with  help  of  Baker's  fluid  you  can  solder;  but 
this  is  hardly  safe  work,  and  you  had  better  have  a  wooden 
plate,  covered  with  tin,  and  tack  down  the  legs.  I  have 
drawn  you  a  circular  lamp,  and  given  three  and  four  legs  to 
the  boiler-stand;  but  take  care  that  you  so  arrange  size 
of  lamp  and  openings  of  the  stand  as  to  enable  you  to 
withdraw  the  former  for  trimming  and  filling.  Now  fit  in 
the  two  small  pipes,  previously  bent  as  required.  To  bend 
them,  if  hard  soldered  or  brazed,  fill  with  melted  lead,  and 
then  bend ;  after  which  melt  out  the  lead  again.  If  soft 
soldered,  you  must  fill  with  a  more  fusible  metal.  There  is 
a  composition  called  "  fusible  metal,"  very  convenient  for 
this  work,  and  well  worth  making,  because  you  will  often 
need  to  bend  small  pipes  into  various  forms.  Melt 
zinc,  1  oz. ;  bismuth  and  lead,  of  each  the  same  quantity 
— this  will  melt  in  hot  water;  8  parts  bismuth,  5  lead, 
and  3  tin,  will  melt  in  boiling  water.  You  can  buy 
these  at  any  operative  chemist's,  either  mixed,  ready 
for  use,  or  separately.  Rosin  and  sand  are  also  used 
for  bending  tin  pipes,  the  sole  object  being  so  to  fill 
them  that  they  will  become  like  a  solid  strip  of  metal,  and 


26o  THE  YOLWG  MECHANIC. 

thus  bend  slowly  and  equally,  with  rounded  and  not  sharp 
angles. 

Pass  the  two  pipes  through  from  beneath  the  bottom  of 
the  cylinder,  and  solder  them  on  the  upper  side  of  it,  so 
that  when  the  cylinder  itself  is  added  these  two  joints  will 
not  be  visible.  Then  set  up  the  cold-water  cistern ;  block 
it  up  with  anything  you  like  so  as  to  keep  it  in  position, 
and,  inserting  the  pipe  from  below,  solder  this  also  from 
above,  i.e.,  on  the  inside  of  the  cistern.  Now,  arrange  the 
frame  that  is  to  support  it,  either  stout  wire  or  wood,  and 
set  it  up  so  as  finally  to  secure  it  in  its  place.  Now,  you 
had  better  set  up  the  pump  cistern,  so  as  to  secure  the  other 
small  pipe  in  position,  and  prevent  it  from  becoming  dis- 
placed by  any  accidental  blow.  Fix  this  cistern  therefore 
also,  but  leave  the  cover  off  for  the  present,  that  you  may 
be  able  to  solder  the  small  pipe  inside  it. 

You  will  now,  at  all  events,  have  secured  the  position  of 
the  most  important  parts,  and  you  may  drop  the  cylinder 
into  place,  and  solder  this  also  round  the  bottom.  This 
would  be  facilitated  by  turning  a  slight  rebate,  Fig.  60,  S, 
round  the  disc  which  forms  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder,  so 
that  the  smaller  part  of  it  will  just  fit  inside  it ;  but  you 
will  be  able  to  manage  it  without.  Let  the  cylinder  project 
a  very  little  beyond  the  bottom,  just  to  allow  a  kind  of 
corner  for  the  solder  to  run  in ;  it  will  not  show  when  all 
is  fixed.  Do  this  as  quickly  as  you  can,  so  as  not  to  melt 


PUTTING  TOGETHER.  26* 


otf  the  solder  round  the  small  pipes.  Now,  make  the  pair 
of  A-shaped  supports  for  the  beam.  Measure  the  height  of 
your  cylinder  top,  above  the  bed-plate,  and  allow  about 
another  inch,  and  you  will  get  the  perpendicular  height  to 
the  axis  of  the  beam.  Allow  3  inches  more  for  each  side, 
that  is,  in  all  for  each  side,  3  inches  longer  than  if  it  was  to 
be  perpendicular  instead  of  spreading.  Take  enough  brass 
wire,  about  as  thick  as  a  small  quill,  to  make  two  such  legs. 
Bend  it  in  the  middle,  like  T,  Fig.  60,  and  flatten  the  berii 
part  by  hammering,  so  as  to  allow  you  to  drill  a  hole  to 
take  the  pivot  on  which  the  beam  is  to  oscillate.  If  you 
like  to  flatten  all  of  it,  and  then  touch  it  up  with  a  file, 
so  as  to  get  quite  straight  edges,  it  will  look  much  more 
handsome.  Make  two  such  pieces  exactly  alike,  and,  at 
distances  alike  in  each,  put  cross-bars.  File  a  little  way 
into  each,  making  square,  flat  notches,  which  will  just  take 
two  flattened  bars  of  the  same  wire ;  heat  them,  and  solder 
very  neatly,  so  that  no  solder  appears  on  the  outside ;  file 
all  flat  and  true.  In  this  way  you  can  make  almost  as  neat 
supports  as  if  they  were  of  cast  brass,  and  you  are  saved  all 
the  trouble  of  making  patterns.  By  and  by,  nevertheless, 
you  must  do  better. 

As  I  have  directed  you  in  this  instance  to  put  a  wooden 
bed-plate  to  your  engine,  you  may  point  the  ends  of  the 
wires,  and,  making  holes  sloping  at  the  same  angle  in  the 
wooden  stand,  drive  the  wires  into  them.  You  have  an 


262  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

advantage  here,  inasmuch  as  you  can  raise  or  lower  your 
stand  until  the  position  of  the  beam  comes  exactly  right, 
and  you  find  the  ends  drop  over  the  centre  of  the  cylinder 
and  pump-barrel  as  it  ought  to  do.  When  this  is  the  case, 
you  can  cut  off  any  wire  that  projects  below  the  stand  and 
file  it  level,  for  it  will  not  be  likely  to  need  more  secure 
fixing.  The  pump  may  now  be  soldered  into  the  cover  of 
the  cistern  (before  the  cover  itself  is  fastened  on),  and  a 
hole  must  be  then  cut  to  receive  the  water  that  will  flow 
from  the  spout,  and  then  the  cover  can  be  fitted  on.  There 
is  no  need  to  solder  it,  if  it  is  made  to^  over- tightly ;  and 
you  may  wish,  perhaps,  to  get  at  the  lower  valve  of  the 
pump  now  and  then. 

The  only  thing  left  to  do  is  to  arrange  the  safety-valve 
of  the  boiler,  which  is  in  many  cases  the  place  through 
which  the  water  is  poured  to  charge  it.  In  this  engine  it 
is,  however,  plain  that  you  can  fill  the  boiler  by  turning 
both  the  taps  at  the  same  time.  A  little  will  run  off  by  the 
waste-pipe,  but  not  enough  to  signify,  because  the  tube 
below  the  cylinder  is  so  much  the  larger  of  the  two.  The 
safety-valve  is  a  little  bit  of  brass  turned  conical  to  fit  the 
§<  tseat,"  made  by  counter-sinking  the  hole.  It  is  shown  at 
K,  Fig.  59,  N  being  the  seat,  0  P  the  dome  of  the  boiler, 
and  close  to  0  is  the  gauge-tap  for  ascertaining  the  height 
of  water  in  the  boiler.  L  M  is  a  lever  of  flattened  wire, 
pivoted  to  turn  on  a  pin  at  L, — L  0  being  an  upright  wire 


PUTTING  TOGETHER. 


soldered  to  the  boiler.  A  notch  is  filed  across  the  top  of 
the  valve,  on  which  the  lever,  L  M,  rests.  The  weight  is 
at  M.  One,  as  large  as  a  big  pea,  hung  at  the  end  of  a 
lever  2  inches  long,  the  valve  at  half  an  inch  from  the 
other  end,  will  probably  suffice  for  this  engine, 


CHAPTER 

WATT'S  ENGINE. 

HATE  already  told  you  that  Watt  suggested 
the  use  of  steam  alternately  on  each  side  of  the 
piston ;  and  carried  it  out  by  closing  the  top  of 
the  cylinder,  and  allowing  the  rod  of  the  piston 
to  pass  through  a  stuffing-box  or  gland.     I  now  have  to 
explain  to  you  how  this  alternate  admission  of  the  steam 
may  be  effected. 

You  evidently  require  first  an  opening  at  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  cylinder,  communicating  with  the  boiler,  one 
only  being  open  at  a  time ;  but  in  this  case,  where  is  the 
steam  to  escape  that  was  on  one  side  of  the  piston  when 
the  opposite  side  was  being  acted  upon?  It  must  go 
somewhere,  but  evidently  must  not  return  to  the  boiler. 
Hence,  some  method  has  to  be  contrived  by  which,  when 
one  end  of  the  cylinder  is  open  to  the  boiler,  the  other 
eaay  be  open  to  the  air  or  to  the  condenser  (in  which  the 


WATT'S  ENGINE. 


263 


266  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

steam  is  cooled  under  Watt's  plan).  Fig.  61  will,  I  think, 
render  clear  one  or  two  of  these  arrangements. 

The  first  is  the  four-way  cock,  a  very  simple  contriv- 
ance, easily  and  frequently  used  in  models.  You  must 
first  understand  how  a  common  water  or  beer  tap  is  made. 
Fig.  61,  A,  represents  one  in  section,  turned  so  as  to  open 
the  passage  along  the  pipe  to  which  it  is  attached ;  C  is  the 
pipe  in  which  is  the  tap,  a  conical  tube  oi  brass  set 
upright,  and  with  a  hole  right  and  left  made  through  it, 
fixed  into  a  short  horizontal  tube  (generally  cast  with  it 
in  one  piece).  Into  this  fits  very  exactly  the  conical  plug 
B,  also  with  a  hole  through  it  sideways.  When  this  is  put 
into  place,  no  water  or  other  liquid  can  pass,  unless  the 
hole  in  the  plug  is  in  the  same  direction  with  the  hollow 
tube  forming  an  open  passage.  If  a  key  is  put  on  the 
square  part  of  the  plug,  and  it  is  turned  half  round,  the 
passage  through  the  pipe  will  be  closed.  A  steam  tap 
would  be  made  in  a  similar  manner,  if  its  only  office  were 
to  open  and  close  a  passage  in  a  tube.  But  we  now  want 
two  passages  closed  and  two  opened,  and  then  the  alternate 
pair  closed  and  opened.  This  is  cleverly  effected  bj  a  four- 
way  cock. 

At  D  is  shown  a  section  of  the  steam  cylinder  and  piston, 
with  the  stuffing-box  and  all  complete.  A  pipe  enters  this 
at  the  top  and  bottom,  and  another  crosses  it  in  the  middle, 
making  four  passages.  Shaded  black  is  the  four-way  cock, 


THE  FO  UR-  WA  Y  CO CK.  203 


the  white  places  showing  the  open  channels  through  the 
plug.  When  this  plug  stands  as  at  D,  steam  can  pass  from 
the  boiler  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder  only,  above  the  piston, 
which  it  drives  downward ;  the  steam  below  the  piston 
escapes  through  the  other  open-curved  channel  into  the  air, 
or  to  the  condenser.  Just  as  the  piston  reaches  the  bottom 
of  the  cylinder,  the  tap  is  turned,  and  the  passage  stands 
as  seen  at  E.  Steam  now  passes  to  the  bottom  below  the 
piston,  driving  it  upward,  and  the  steam  above  it,  which 
has  done  its  work,  passes  outward  through  the  other  open 
channel  of  the  tap. 

You  must  understand  that  when  iNTewcomen  first  set  up 
his  engine,  a  man  had  to  turn  the  taps  at  the  proper 
moment ;  and  it  is  said  that  one  Humphrey  Potter,  a  boy, 
being  left  in  charge,  and  getting  tired  of  this  work,  first 
devised  means  to  make  the  engine  itself  do  this,  by  con- 
necting strings  tied  to  the  handles  of  the  taps  to  the  beam 
that  moved  up  and  down  above  his  head.  Beighton  and 
others  improved  on  this,  and  very  soon  it  became  unneces- 
sary for  the  attendant  to  do  anything  but  keep  up  a  good 
fire,  and  attend  to  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  boiler,  and 
the  pressure  of  the  steam. 

In  the  model  I  gave  you  of  Newcomen's  engine,  I  pur- 
posely left  the  taps  to  be  moved  by  hand ;  but  F  of  the 
present  figure  shows  how,  by  bringing  them  near  together, 
and  adding  cogged  wheels  or  pulleys,  you  would  make  one 


*68  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


handle  answer  for  both ;  and  I  shall  leave  you  to  devise  an 
easy  method  of  making  the  engine  work  this  one  handle  for 
itself.  When  Watt  made  his  first  engine,  therefore,  this 
work  had  been  already  done,  and  he  only  had  to  improve 
upon  it,  and  to  make  it  work  more  accurately  to  suit  the 
engine  designed  by  himself. 

If  you  should  chance  to  pay  a  visit  to  the  Museum  at 
South  Kensington,  you  may  see,  I  believe,  Watt's  original 
engine,  if  not  Newcomen's.  The  cylinders  are  so  large  and 
cumbrous,  that  the  wonder  is  they  were  ever  bored  by  the 
inefficient  means  then  in  use;  and  the  beam  is  a  most 
unwieldy  mass  of  timber  and  iron,  that  looks  as  if  no 
power  of  steam  could  ever  have  made  it  oscillate.  Yet  it 
was  in  its  day  a  successful  engine,  the  wonder  of  the  age ; 
and  did  good  work  for  its  inventor  and  purchaser.  I 
strongly  advise  my  readers  to  try  and  visit  Kensington, 
for  there  are  many  interesting  models  there,  besides  engines 
and  appliances  of  older  days.  They  will  thus  learn  what 
rapid  progress  has  been  made  since  the  days  of  Savery, 
Newcomen,  and  Watt;  not  only  in  the  improvement  of  the 
arrangement  of  the  parts,  but  in  the  workmanship,  which 
last  is  mainly  due  to  the  invention  of  the  slide-rest  and 
planing-machine. 

We  must  now  return  to  the  double-acting  or  real  steam 
ingine,  and  consider  a  second  means  whereby  the  steam 
can  be  alternately  admitted  and  exhausted. 


THE  LONG  SLIDE-  VAL  VE.  269 

The  four-way  cock,  already  explained,  was  found  to  wear 
very  considerably  in  practice,  and  hence  work  loose,  and  a 
new  contrivance,  called  the  slide-valve,  soon  took  its  place. 
Of  this  there  are  two  patterns,  the  long  D-valve  and  the 
short  one,  which  latter  is  used  for  locomotives.  There  is 
also  a  form  called  a  tappet-valve,  often  used  for  arge 
stationary  engines,  but  which  is  noisy  and  subject  to  rapid 
wear.  I  shall  describe  the  long  D  first,  in  the  form  in 
which  it  would  be  most  easily  made  for  a  model  engine. 

The  two  ports  by  which  steam  passes  to  the  cylinder  are 
shown  at  d,  e,  of  H,  Fig,  61.  C  is  the  passage  to  the 
boiler,  K  is  that  to  the  condenser.  These  are  openings  in 
a  tube  smoothly  bored  within,  and  having  at  the  top  a 
stuffing-box  like  that  on  the  cylinder.  Within  this  tube 
works  an  inner  one,  b,  having  rings  or  projections  at  the 
ends  fitting  perfectly,  and  which  are  packed  with  india- 
rubber,  hemp  (or,  in  modern  days,  with  metal),  to  make 
a  close  fit.  In  a  model,  two  bosses  of  brass,  K,  soldered 
on  the  tube  and  then  turned,  make  the  best  packing. 
These  packed  portions  of  the  inner  tube  form  the  stoppers 
to  the  steam  ports,  e  6,  alternately,  at  the  top  and  bottom. 
The  upper  part  of  the  inner  tube  has  a  cross  arm,  3, 
affixed,  from  the  centre  of  which  rises  the  valve-rod  by 
which  it  is  moved  up  and  down.  In  the  position  1,  the 
steam  can  pass  from  c  round  the  tube  to  </,  and  thence  to 
the  top  of  the  cylinder  to  which  d  is  attached.  The  exhaust 


270  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

steam  passes  from  e  below  the  piston  by  ^  to  the  condenser. 
In  the  second  position,  2,  the  steam  is  evidently  shut  off 
from  d,  but  can  pass  out  at  e  e  below  the  cylinder,  while 
the  communication  is  still  open  to  the  condenser  from  d, 
through  the  middle  of  the  tube  to  K.  This  is  a  very  good 
form  of  valve,  because  the  exhaust  is  always  open,  and  the 
motion  is  smooth  and  equal. 

There  are  many  modifications  of  the  long  D-valve,  but 
the  principle  of  all  is  the  same ;  I  shall  therefore  describe 
the  short  slide-valve  which  is  nearly  always  used  in  the 
models  which  are  purchased  at  the  shops.  This,  too,  is 
the  usual  form  of  valve  in  locomotives,  traction-engines, 
and  the  majority  of  those  in  use  for  agricultural  and 
similar  purposes.  A,  Fig.  62,  is  the  cylinder  as  before 
in  section  with  piston.  A  thick  piece  is  cast  with  the 
cylinder,  on  one  side  of  it,  having  steam  ports  also  cast  in 
it,  which  are  here  left  white.  The  two  as  before  go  to  the 
top  and  bottom  of  the  cylinder,  and  have  no  communi- 
cation with  the  central  one,  which  is  bored  straight  into 
the  boss,  and  generally  is  turned  at  right  angles  and  con 
nected  with  the  condenser,  or  with  a  pipe  opening-  into  the 
chimney  of  the  engine  to  increase  the  draught  by  means  of 
the  jets  of  steam,  as  is  the  case  always  in  locomotives,  or  into 
the  air,  which  is  less  usual.  Seen  from  behind,  tuese  ports 
are  like  B,  being  cast  and  cut  rectangular ;  and  the  face,  B, 
is  planed  quite  level,  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the 


THE  SHORT  SLIDE-VALVE. 


Fig  62. 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


proper  action  of  the  slide-valve  which  has  to  work  upon 
it.  This  valve  is  a  box  of  iron,  C,  with  a  wide  flange  or 
rim,  this  flange  being  of  sufficient  width  to  close  either 
port.  If  this  valve  is  placed  as  it  stands  when  the  engine 
is  at  rest,  b  covers  the  upper  steam  port,  and  a  the  lower  ; 
while  the  exhaust  or  middle  port  is  open  to  the  hollow  part 
of  the  box.  Now,  if  we  slide  the  valve  downwards  until  the 
upper  port  is  open,  the  other  two  will  be  in  communication, 
being  united  by  being  both  together  in  the  inside  of  this 
box  or  valve.  Suppose  the  valve  then  cased  in,  and  that 
steam  is  admitted  from  the  boiler  into  the  case,  it  is 
evident  that  such  steam  could  freely  pass  to  the  top  of 
the  cylinder  above  the  piston  to  force  it  downwards,  while 
that  which  was  below  would  escape  by  the  lower  port  into 
the  box,  and  thence  pass  to  the  condenser.  If,  instead  of 
pushing  down  the  valve,  we  had  drawn  it  upwards,  the 
lower  port  would  have  been  opened,  and  the  upper  and 
middle  would  have  been  brought  into  communication  in- 
side the  valve,  and  the  contrary  effect  would  have  been 
produced  upon  the  piston. 

This  is  the  arrangement  adopted,  and  which  will  be 
clearly  understood  from  the  following  sectional  drawing, 
D.  a,  a,  is  the  thick  casting  upon  the  cylinder,  with  the 
upper  and  lower  steam  ports,  which  end  towards  the  middle 
of  the  cylinder,  with  the  third  port  lying  between  ;  then  b 
is  a  section  of  the  valve,  in  such  a  position  that  the  flange 


THE  SHOR  T  SLIDE-  VAL  VE.  2  ^ 3 

of  it  no  longer  covers  the  lower  steam  port,  while  the  othar 
two  are  open  together  on  the  inside  of  the  valve.  The 
latter  is  cased  in  by  the  valve-box,  e  0,  in  the  back  of 
which  is  the  steam  pipe  f  coming  from  the  boiler.  The 
valve-rod,  which  is  moved  by  the  engine,  passes  at  o 
through  a  stuffing-box.  It  is  evidently  necessary  that 
this  slide-valve  should  fit,  and  work  very  smoothly  and 
correctly  against  the  face  of  the  ports,  so  as  not  to  allow 
any  escape  of  the  steam.  It  is  not,  however,  packed  in 
any  way  at  the  back  (although  springs  have  been  some- 
times added),  because,  as  the  back  is  subjected  to  the  full 
pressure  of  the  steam  from  the  boiler,  this  keeps  it  quite 
close  to  its  seat  The  rod,  however,  by  which  it  is  worked, 
might  prevent  this  close  contact  of  the  two  surfaces  if  it 
was  screwed  into  the  valve ;  it  is  therefore  made  with  a 
cross,  E,  at  the  end,  which  falls  into  a  notch  in  a  boss 
cast  upon  the  back  of  the  valve  as  seen  at  F.  This  allows 
a  certain  degree  of  play  in  one  direction,  and  permits  the 
steam  to  press  it  close  even  after  it  has  become  worn  by 
use. 

You  will,  I  think,  now  clearly  understand  how  steam 
can  be  admitted  alternately  to  the  top  and  bottom  of  a 
cylinder,  and  how  the  exhausted  steam  that  has  done  its 
work  escapes.  I  must  therefore  now  tell  you  how  the  rod 
of  the  slide-valve  is  moved  up  and  down  by  the  engine, 
but  to  do  this,  I  must  draw  such  engine  complete. 

M 


THE   YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


w 


Fig.  68. 


THE  MOVEMENT  OF  THE  PISTON-ROD.     275 

The  cylinder,  A,  is  screwed  down  on  its  side  upon  the 
bed-plate,  R  E-,  out  of  which  are  cut  two  holes,  one  for 
the  fly-wheel,  P,  of  which  part  only  appears  for  want  of 
space,  the  other  for  the  crank,  L,  on  the  end  of  the  axle, 
M  M,  running  through  bearings,  N  N.  The  slide-valve-box 
is  at  B,  C  being  the  steam-pipe  from  the  boiler.  The  piston- 
rod  has  necessarily  to  move  only  in  a  straight  line  in  the 
direction  of  its  length,  but  the  crank  which  it  has  to  work 
to  turn  the  fly-wheel  must  needs  move  round  in  a  circle. 
Hence,  a  poker -and-tongs  joint,  F  0  F,  is  arranged. 
The  connecting-rod,  H,  which  is  attached  to  the  crank  by 
brasses  at  K,  divides  or  is  attached  to  a  forked  piece,  at 
the  lower  end  of  which  are  a  pair  of  bearings  or  brasses, 
F  F.  The  piston-rod  carries  the  piece  0,  the  cross-bar  of 
which  is  turned,  being,  in  fact,  the  pin  which  passes  into 
these  bearings  at  F  F.  This  forms,  therefore,  a  hinge- 
joint  at  this  place,  so  that  although  the  piston-rod  cannot 
leave  the  right  line,  and  can  only  slide  in  the  guide,  E, 
the  rod,  H,  has  an  up-and-down  motion  upon  this  hinge, 
allowing  the  revolution  of  the  crank-pin  to  take  place.  D 
is  the  valve-rod,  in  which  is  a  hinge  at  S,  which  suffices  for 
the  slight  movement  required  in  the  rod,  as  it  rises  and 
falls  by  the  action  of  the  eccentric,  T,  the  motion  and  effect 
of  which  I  now  have  to  explain. 

V  is  a  round  disc  of  metal  with  a  recess  on  its  edge,  so 
that  it  is  like  an  ordinary  pulley,  but  large  in  proportion  to 


276  THE   YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

its  thickness.  A  hole  for  the  main  crank  axle,  to  which  it 
has  to  be  firmly  keyed,  is  made  through  it,  but  not  in  its 
centre  (hence  its  name,  eccentric — out  of  the  centre).  As 
the  axle  revolves,  it  is  evident  that  this  disc  revolving  with 
it  will  carry  any  point,  Y,  of  its  surface  round  in  a  circle ; 
the  centre  of  which  is  on  the  central  line  or  axis  of  the 
crank-shaft.  I  have  drawn  such  circle  as  described  by  the 
point  Y,  farthest  from  the  axis ;  but  any  and  all  points 
describe  larger  or  lesser  circles  round  the  same  centre. 
The  point  Y  may,  therefore,  be  considered  as  the  centre  of 
a  crank-pin ;  and  the  eccentric  might,  so  far  as  its  effects 
are  concerned,  be  replaced  by  a  crank.  Now,  if  you  turn 
the  fly-wheel  of  your  lathe  by  hand,  the  crank  will  revolve, 
but  the  treadle  will  rise  and  fall  only  in  a  straight  line ; 
and  you  will  presently  see  how  the  eccentric,  in  its  revolu- 
tion, gives  just  such  a  to-and-fro  motion  to  the  rod  D, 
and  consequently  also  to  the  slide-valve,  which  it  has  to 
move. 

Round  the  disc  V,  closely  encircling  it,  is  a  flat  ring, 
shown  separately  at  X,  with  a  rod,  W,  attached  to  and  part 
of  it.  This  ring  is  generally  made  in  separate  halves, 
united  by  bolts  passing  through  projecting  lugs  or  ears. 
The  ring  also  fits  into  the  groove  turned  on  the  edge  of  the 
disc  V,  so  that  it  cannot  slip  off  sideways.  This  outer  ring 
is  turned  quite  smooth  and  true  on  the  inside,  so  that  the 
eccentric  disc  can  revolve  within  it.  In  doing  so,  it  'IB 


THE  ECCENTRIC.  27} 

plain  that  the  whole  ring  will  rise  and  fall,  and  that  the 
rod  W  will  move  up  and  down,  or  to  and  fro,  like  the 
treadle  of  the  lathe,  thereby  giving  motion  to  the  valve- 
rod,  which  is  a  continuation  of  the  rod  W.  As  the  upper 
end,  however,  of  this  rod  has  an  oscillating,  or  up-and- 
down  motion,  this  is  imparted,  in  a  certain  degree,  to  its 
other  end,  at  the  farthest  distance  from  the  eccentric ;  and 
hence  the  necessity  for  a  hinged  joint  at  S,  to  prevent  the 
valve-rod  from  partaking  of  this  movement.  It  is,  how- 
ever, very  slight,  so  that  the  rod  of  the  valve  is  not  often 
made  to  pass  through  guides  like  the  piston.  The  whole 
movement  of  the  valve-rod  is  very  limited,  its  traverse  only 
being  required  to  be  sufficient  to  shift  the  valve  the  width 
of  one  of  its  ports  at  each  stroke.  The  length  of  stroke  or 
traverse  which  can  be  obtained  by  the  eccentric  is  always 
equal  to  twice  the  distance  between  its  real  centre,  and  that 
on  which  it  turns,  which  will  always  be  a  guide  to  you  in 
making  an  engine. 

The  drawing  here  described  is  a  plan,  i.e.,  a  drawing 
viewed  directly  from  above ;  therefore  I  cannot  show  you 
the  perspective  view  of  the  parts,  which  are,  indeed,  in 
many  cases  only  suggested  by  the  shading.  I  have,  there- 
fore, added  a  second  drawing  of  the  several  details.  This 
engine  is,  in  construction,  the  simplest  that  can  be  devised 
wiih  a  slide-val.e,  there  being  no  additions  beyond  what 
RTF  absolutely  necessary  to  make  it  work  ;  the  exhaust-port 


278 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


is  below,  opposite  to  the  letter  B  on  the  valve-box.     A, 
Fig.  64,  is  the  forked  connecting-rod,  marked  H  in  the 


Fig.  64. 


previous  drawing.     This  is  cast  with  forked  ends,  ar,  and  * 


DETAILS.  *79 

Y  (the  latter  being  F  F  of  Fig.  63).  These  ends  receive 
brasses  in  the  following  way,  the  end  x  being  represented 
on  a  larger  scale  at  B,  with  such  brasses  in  place ;  of  these 
there  are  two  shaped  like  D.  One  of  these  lies  in  the  fork 
of  the  connecting-rod  end.  A  second  similar  one  lies  in 
the  strap  of  iron  C,  which  reaches  beyond  the  first.  A 
cotter  or  key,  which  is,  in  fact,  a  wedge  of  iron,  is  then 
passed  through  a  slot  in  the  strap,  and  a  similar  one  in  the 
rod  ;  and  being  driven  home,  draws  the  two  brasses  tightly 
together,  causing  them  to  embrace  the  crank -pin,  L,  Fig. 
63,  or  any  similar  bearing.  All  shafts  that  revolve  in 
bearings  are  made  to  pass  through  brasses,  and  whenever 
these  occur  at  the  end  of  a  rod,  they  are  fitted  as  here 
described.  E  is  another  bearing  of  cast-iron,  also  fitted  with 
brasses ;  but  in  a  case  like  this,  a  plate  lies  on  the  upper  one, 
and  is  screwed  down  by  bolts  and  nuts  as  required.  This 
bearing  would  do  very  well  at  E,  Fig.  63,  as  a  guide  for 
the  piston-rod;  but  in  models  such  guide  is  commonly 
made  without  brasses,  like  F  or  G-  of  the  present  drawing. 
At  H,  I  have  shown  the  part  F  0  F  of  the  drawing  63. 
The  middle  is  of  brass  or  iron ;  if  of  the  former,  g  g  must 
be  separate,  as  these  gudgeons  would  not  be  substantial 
enough,  unless  of  iron  or  steel.  It  is  essential  that  K  L, 
the  piston-rod,  should  be  in  one  right  line ;  but7  if  this  is 
attended  to,  they  need  not  necessarily  be  one  piece ;  and 
freqnentl)1  the  piston-rod,  L,  is  fixed  into  one  end  of  the 


280  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

central  casting,  and  another  rod,  K,  is  screwed  into  the 
other.  In  a  model,  the  piston-rod  should  pass  quite 
through,  and  g  g  should  be  two  separate  gudgeons  screwed 
in,  and  then  turned  together  in  \he  lathe,  to  insure  their 
being  exactly  in  one  line.  These  go  into  the  brasses  in 
the  forked  ends  of  the  connecting-rod,  to  form  a  hinge  at 
that  part,  as  will  be  understood  by  a  reference  to  Fig.  63. 

At  M,  I  have  shown  another  simple  eccentric  and  rod, 
which  is  less  trouble  to  make  in  a  model  than  the  other. 
In  this  the  ring  is  made  in  one  piece,  with  a  round  rod 
screwing  into  it.  The  disc  has  a  slight  groove  turned  in 
its  edge,  and  a  small  screw,  P,  passes  through  the  ring  and 
falls  into  this  groove.  This  suffices  to  prevent  the  ring 
from  falling  off  sideways,  and  of  course  is  not  screwed 
down  so  tight  as  to  prevent  the  disc  from  revolving.  This 
is  a  very  easy  way  to  fit  the  eccentric,  and  is  generally 
followed  in  small  engines.  The  lattice  eccentric  rod  is 
nearly  always  used  in  large  beam  engines. 

I  do  not  think  the  reader  will  now  have  any  difficulty  in 
understanding  the  precise  arrangement  of  the  various  parts 
in  the  simple  horizontal  engine  of  which  I  have  given  a 
sketch.  It  is  a  neat  and  convenient  form,  easily  arranged 
as  a  model,  and  I  shall  proceed  at  once  to  the  practical 
work  of  constructing  this,  and  engines  in  general,  presup- 
posing a  knowledge  of  the  use  of  the  lathe,  and  of  the  few 
tools  required. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

HOW    TO    MAKE    AN    ENGINE. 

HE  very  first  mechanical  work  of  difficulty,  but  of 
pre-emineut  importance,  in  making  an  engine, 
is  boring  the  cylinder,  that  is,  if  the  same  is  a 
casting,  and  not  a  piece  of  tube  ready  made  and 
smooth  on  the  inside.  This  is,  properly  speaking,  lathe 
work,  yet  may  be  done  in  a  different  way.  Suppose  you 
have  bought  your  entire  set  of  castings,  which  is  the  best 
way,  and  that  the  cylinder  is  half  an  inch  diameter  inside, 
which  is  a  manageable  size  to  work  upon.  Get  a  half-inch 
rosebit,  which  is  very  like  the  countersinks  sold  with  the 
carpenter's  brace  and  bits.  Mount  it  in  the  lathe  in  a 
chuck,  A,  Fig.  65.  Unscrew  the  point  of  the  back  poppit, 
and  slip  over  the  spindle  a  boring-flange,  B,  which  is 
merely  a  flat  plate  like  a  surface  chuck,  only  the  socket  is 
iiot  screwed  but  bored  out,  generally  large  enough  to  slip 
over  the  spindle.  Sometimes  there  is,  however,  a  screw  at 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


Fig.  65. 


HOW  TO  MAKE  AN  ENGINE.  283 

the  back,  to  screw  into  the  spindle,  the  same  as  the  points 
or  centres.  On  the  face  of  this  lay  a  piece  of  board  of  equal 
thickness,  but  it  is  as  well  if  not  planed,  as  its  object  is 
partly  to  prevent  the  cylinder  from  slipping  about  during 
the  operation,  as  it  is  sometimes  inclined  to  do  upon  the 
smooth  metal  flange,  and  partly  to  prevent  the  borer  or 
rosebit  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  flange  when  it 
has  passed  through  the  cylinder.  Grasp  the  latter  in  the 
left  hand,  and  you  can  easily  prevent  it  from  revolving  with 
the  drill,  which  will  go  through  rapidly,  and  leave  the  hole 
beautifully  finished  and  quite  true  from  end  to  end, — 
indeed,  I  have  bored  iron  also,  rapidly  and  with  great  ease, 
with  this  tool. 

It  is  absolutely  necessary,  remember,  that  this  hole  bored 
in  the  cylinder  should  be  at  right  angles  to  the  ends  of  the 
same,  and  to  secure  this  you  must  now  make  use  of  it  to 
mount  the  cylinder  in  the  lathe  to  turn  these  ends  or 
flanges.  I  will  show  you  a  simple  and  easy  way  to  do  this. 
C  is  a  bar  of  iron  or  steel,  preferably  of  the  latter,  about  6 
inches  long,  and  three-eighths  diameter,  filed  into  six  sides. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  three  or  four  sizes  of  such  bars, 
with  centre  holes  drilled  carefully  into  each  end,  so  that 
you  can  mount  them  with  a  carrier-chuck,  as  you  would  if 
you  were  going  to  turn  them.  Taking  one  of  about  the 
size  named,  mount  upon  it  a  piece  of  wood,  and  turn  this 
down  until  your  cylinder  will  just  go  tightly  upon  it, 


284  2 HE  \OUNG  MECHANIC. 


Being  a  six-sided  bar,  it  is  easy  to  mount  the  wood  upon  it 
by  boring  the  latter  with  a  gimlet  and  then  driving  the  bar 
into  it.  It  will  hold  tightly,  and  not  turn  round  upon  the 
metal.  The  cylinder  being  fixed  in  this  way,  you  must 
turn  the  two  flanges  with  a  graver  if  the  cylinder  is  of  iron, 
but  with  a  flat  tool  or  the  four-sided  brass  tool  if  of  the 
latter  metal ;  and  also  turn  the  edges  of  the  flanges.  The 
rest  of  the  cylinder  will  be  left  in  the  rough,  and  may  be 
painted  green  or  black.  I  should  advise  you  always  to  bore 
the  cylinder  first  when  possible,  and  then  to  mount  it  as 
described  and  turn  it  on  the  ends,  which  are  thus  sure  to 
be  correctly  at  right  angles  to  the  bore.  Some  cylinders, 
however,  especially  short  ones,  may  be  squared  up  first,  and 
then  mounted  on  a  face-plate  and  bored.  Unless,  however, 
you  have  either  a  grip-chuck,  which  is  self-centring,  or 
some  clamps  properly  constructed  for  this  particular  work, 
you  will  find  the  first  method  the  easiest,  especially  for 
small  light  work. 

You  should  now  make  the  ports  for  steam  and  exhaust. 
Mark  them  upon  the  flat  part  of  the  casting,  after  you 
have  filed  this  as  level  as  you  can,  and  do  not  mark  them 
so  long  as  not  to  leave  you  room  beyond  the  ends  of  the 
ports  for  the  steam-box  or  case  which  has  to  be  placed  here. 
The  upper  and  lower  ports  are  to  be  the  same  size,  but  the 
middle  one  may  be  a  trifle  larger  with  advantage.  In 
larger  engines  these  are  cast  in  the  metal,  and  have  only 


HOW  TO  MAKE  AN  ENGINE.  285 

to  be  trimmed  and  faced ;  but  in  the  small  models  you  have 
to  drill  them  out  in  the  boss  cast  on  the  cylinder.  Drill 
down  from  the  top,  as  shown  at  D  by  the  dotted  lines,  but 
take  great  care  not  to  go  farther  than  the  outer  ports,  which 
are  to  be  therefore  first  made,  so  that  you  can  tell  when  tLs 
drill  has  gone  far  enough.  If  you  pierce  the  middle  jfort 
from  either  end,  the  cylinder  is  spoiled.  To  cut  the  middle 
one,  you  merely  drill  a  hole  straight  in  towards  the  cylinder, 
and  meet  it  by  another  drilled  from  the  side,  into  which  the 
pipe  for  the  exhaust  is  to  be  screwed.  You  also  drill 
straight  through  into  the  cylinder  at  a  b,  and  you  then 
plug  the  end  ofy,  and  that  at  the  other  end  of  the  cylinder. 
Your  port  faces,  however,  are  generally  oblong,  and  not 
round.  Make  a  row  of  holes  with  the  drill,  and  then,  with 
a  little  narrow  steel  chisel  and  light  hammer,  chip  out 
the  superfluous  metal,  and  finish  with  a  small  file.  You 
can  always  make  narrow  channels  with  squared  sides  by 
thus  drilling  two  or  more  holes,  and  throwing  them  into 
one  with  a  file ;  but  in  reality,  for  these  small  engines,  it  is 
very  little  matter  whether  the  ports  are  round  in  section  or 
square. 

The  bottom  and  top  of  the  cylinder  demand  our  next 
attention.  E  and  F  show  these.  They  are  easily  and  in- 
stantly mounted  in  a  self-centring  chuck,  but  can  be  held 
very  well  in  one  of  wood  carefully  bored  with  a  recess  of  the 
right  size  and  depth.  You  must  here,  nevertheless,  b  every 


*86  1HE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

particular,  else  you  will  get  your  work  untrue  at  this  point, 
and  then  your  piston-rod  will  stand  awry,  and  all  your 
subsequent  fitting  will  be  badly  done.  I  therefore  give  you 
at  G  a  section  of  the  chuck  bored  to  take  the  cover  truly. 
Recess  the  part  down  to  the  line  a  b,  to  fit  the  cover  exactly, 
taking  care  to  level  very  carefully  the  bottom  of  the  recess. 
Below  this  cut  a  deeper  hole,  to  allow  the  flange  in  which 
the  stuffing-box  will  be  to  go  into  it.  It  need  not,  how- 
ever,^ the  flange.  The  rough  casting  will  hold  very  well 
in  a  chuck  like  this,  even  if  it  is  of  iron.  You  now  care- 
fully face  the  bottom  of  the  cover,  and  turn  the  slight 
flange  exactly  to  fit  in  to  the  cylinder;  then  reverse  it  in  the 
chuck,  so  as  to  get  the  stuffing-box  outside ;  and  in  doing 
so,  take  the  greatest  care  that  it  beds  flat  upon  the  bottom 
of  the  chuck.  Turn  off  level  the  top  of  the  flange  first  at  x 
of  fig.  E,  and  then  place  a  drill  with  its  point  against  the 
middle  of  this,  and  its  other  end  (with  a  little  hole 
punched  in  it  to  keep  it  steady)  against  the  back  poppit 
centre,  and  carefully  drill  a  hole  down  to  the  level  of  c, 
large  enough  to  admit  the  gland  of  the  stuffing-box  or  nearly 
so ;  but  remember  that  you  must  not  go  too  far,  because 
the  rest  of  the  hole  must  only  just  allow  the  piston-rod  to 
go  through  it.  Therefore,  after  you  have  drilled  about 
three-fourths  of  the  distance,  replace  this  drill  by  a  smaller 
one,  and  with  it  bore  quite  through.  The  advantage  of  be- 
ginning in  this  way  is,  that  you  can  now  bring  up  the  back 


HOW  TO  MAKE  AN  ENGINE.  28? 

centre  of  your  lathe  to  steady  the  cylinder  cover  while  you 
finish  turning  it ;  and  as  you  will  have  to  make  a  chuck 
only  to  take  hold  of  the  flange  b,  while  you  turn  the  edge, 
you  will  need  probably  some  extra  support  of  this  kind.  I 
have,  nevertheless,  turned  an  iron  cjdinder  cover  2^-  inches 
diameter  without  any  such  support ;  the  actual  strain  not 
being  very  severe,  provided  you  understand  how  a  tool 
should  be  made  and  held. 

The  above  directions  apply  equally  to  the  cylinder  bottom, 
the  great  secret  in  this  and  all  similar  work  being  to  take 
care  to  bed  the  work  well  and  truly  against  the  bottom  of 
the  recess,  turned  in  the  chuck  ;  this  being  neglected,  will 
result  in  the  two  faces  not  being  parallel,  which  will  terribly 
throw  out  of  truth  the  rest  of  your  work.  Indeed,  in  all 
fitting  of  this  kind,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  be  exact 
in  the  squaring  and  truing  of  each  several  piece  that  has 
to  be  turned  or  filed ;  otherwise  no  planning  or  clumsy 
arrangement  will  make  your  mechanism  work  as  it  ought 
to  do.  Take  a  week,  if  necessary,  over  any  part,  and  don't 
be  content  until  it  is  well  done. 

Your  cylinder  ought  now  to  have  a  finished  appearance 
when  the  cover  and  bottom  are  placed  in  position,  but  the 
latter  have  to  be  permanently  attached  by  small  screws, 
and  these  I  strongly  advise  you  to  buy.  They  cost  about 
50  cents  a  dozen,  including  a  tap  with  which  to  make  a 
thread  in  the  holes  made  to  receive  them  ;  or,  if  you  prefer 


*88  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

it,  you  can  buy  miniature  bolts  and  nuts  at  almost  as 
cheap  a  rate,  which  would  cost  you  much  time  and  trouble 
to  make  for  yourself,  if,  indeed,  you  succeeded  at  all.  You 
will  want  four  of  these  for  the  top,  and  the  same  for  the 
bottom,  the  holes  for  which  you  will  make  with  a  small 
archimedean  or  other  drill. 

The  mention  I  have  made  of  this  reminds  me  that  I  am 
gradually  adding  considerably  to  your  list  of  tools,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  do  so  if  you  take  up  model-making.  Set 
down,  at  any  rate,  the  following: — 

ARCHIMEDEAN  DRILL-STOCK  and  6  DRILLS. 

TABLE -VICE. 

HAND  -  VICE  or  PIN  -VICE. 

SMALL  BRASS-BACK  SAWS  for  METAL. 

PAIR  of  SMALL  PLIERS. 

And  for  use  in  the  lathe,  either  two  or  three  sizes  of  rose- 
bits,  or  engineer's  half-round  boring  bits,  of  which  I  shall 
have  to  speak  presently;  and,  unless  you  buy  all  screws 
and  nuts,  you  will  want  screw-plate  and  taps,  or  small 
stock  and  dies.  Files  of  square,  round,  and  oblong  section 
are  matters  of  course.  Remember,  too,  that  after  a  file 
has  been  used  on  iron  and  steel,  it  is  useless  for  brass ;  so 
use  new  ones  on  the  latter  metal  first,  and  after  such  use 
they  will  answer  for  cast  iron  and  then  for  wrought  iron. 
You  will  find  the  cost  of  files  rather  heavy  unless  you 
attend  to  this.  Have  neat  handles  to  all  your  smaller  files, 
with  ferules  to  prevent  splitting. 


THE   VALVE-BOX.  289 

When  you  purchase  the  castings  of  the  engine,  you  will 
find  a  valve-box  to  enclose  the  slide  and  become  a  steam- 
chest,  as  explained.  It  is  like  a  box  with  neither  top  nor 
bottom,  but  with  a  flange,  or  turned-out  edge  all  round,  for 
the  screws  by  which  it  is  to  be  attached  to  the  valve-lacings 
of  the  cylinder.  This  box  must  have  its  flanges  filed  up 
bright  on  their  flat  sides  and  edges — the  rest  may  be  painted. 
It  will  exercise  your  skill  to  get  the  two  faces  flat  and  true, 
to  fit  upon  the  cylinder ;  and  at  last  you  will  find  it  ex- 
pedient to  put  a  brown  paper  rim  or  washer  between  the 
surfaces,  or  a  bit  of  very  thin  sheet  lead,  to  make  a  steam- 
tight  joint.  Do  not  solder  it,  if  it  is  possible  to  use  screws, 
because  this  is  nearly  certain  to  get  melted  off;  and,  if  not, 
it  is  not  nearly  so  neat  and  workmanlike  a  way  of  uniting 
the  parts.  You  should,  indeed,  in  all  models,  put  them 
together  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  able  at  any  time  to 
separate  the  different  pieces  again,  either  for  the  purpose 
of  cleaning  or  repair ;  and,  if  you  solder,  you  cannot  easily 
do  this. 

The  valve-casing  and  its  back  are  generally  put  on 
together ;  four  screws  at  the  corners  passing  through  the 
back  and  both  flanges  into  the  flat  side  of  the  cylinder. 
This  depends,  however,  upon  the  exact  shape  of  these 
different  pieces ;  and  I  can  give  you  no  special  directions 
for  a  particular  case  unless  I  could  see  the  castings  which 
you  have  to  fit  together.  The  stuffing-box  you  will  make 


290  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


quite  separate,  both  its  outer  and  inner  part,  and  screw  ot 
solder  the  former  into  place.  It  is  seldom  cast  upon  the 
valve-casing,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  chucking  a  cubica) 
object  safely  so  as  to  turn  any  part  of  it. 

You  are  not  to  screw  or  solder  the  valve-box  to  the 
cylinder  until  you  have  carefully  filed  up  the  valve  itself  to 
slide  upon  the  port  face,  without  the  possibility  of  any  escape 
of  steam  taking  place.  This  needs  the  greatest  possible 
care ;  arid  probably,  after  doing  what  you  can  with  a  flat 
file,  you  will  have  to  put  a  little  emery  and  oil  between 
the  surfaces,  and  grind  them  to  a  perfect  fit,  by  rubbing 
them  together.  This  grinding  with  emery  is  an  operation 
frequently  required  in  mechanical  engineering.  Lathe- 
mandrels  are  fitted  in  this  way  into  the  collars ;  the 
cylinder  is  also  ground  into  the  back  poppit-head.  It  is 
not  a  very  long  or  difficult  operation,  but  whenever  you 
have  had  to  use  it,  take  care  to  wipe  off  the  emery,  or  it 
will  keep  on  grinding.  It  is  indeed  very  difficult  to  do 
this  perfectly ;  and  for  very  fine  work,  such  as  fitting  the 
mandrel  of  a  screw-cutting  lathe  (i.e.,  a  traversing  mandrel), 
oil-stone  powder  and  crocus  are  used,  in  place  of  emery. 
These,  however,  cut  very  slowly,  making  the  operation  of 
grinding  exceedingly  tedious;  and  in  the  present  instance, 
emery  will  answer  quite  well  enough.  In  very  small 
engines,  a  stroke  or  two  of  a  file  is  all  that  is  needed  to  fit 
the  valve,  which  is  so  small  as  hardly  to  be  worthy  of  the 


PISTON  AND  PIS TON-R  OD.  291 


name  ;  but  in  an  engine  with  cylinder  of  1  or  2-inch  bore. 
it  will  be  impossible  to  do  with  file  alone,  as  well  as  you 
can  with  grinding. 

The  piston  and  piston-rod  should  be  turned  at  the  same 
time,  as  already  suggested  in  treating  of  the  atmospheric 
engine  of  Newcomen.  By  this,  you  will  avoid  getting  the 
piston  "  out  of  square  "  with  its  rod,  as  if  you  had  bored 
the  hole  for  the  latter  askew — a  not  unusual  occurrence. 

I  do  not  mean  to  say  that  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for 
you  to  turn  the  piston-rod  at  all,  for,  in  models,  it  is  gener- 
ally of  round  iron  or  steel-wire,  which  is  as  cylindrical  as 
you  can  possibly  make  it.  Knitting-needles  are  in  general 
use  for  this,  as  being  well  finished  and  equalised  L-om  end 
to  end.  But  these  are  rather  hard,  being  tempered  only  to 
about  the  degree  of  steel-springs ;  therefore  you  must  never 
attempt  to  cut  a  screw  on  them  until  you  have  first  heated 
the  end  to  be  screwed  red-hot,  and  allowed  it  to  cool  again 
very  slowly.  If  you  do  this,  a  screw-plate  will  put  a  suffi- 
ciently good  thread  to  allow  you  to  attach  either  the  piston, 
or  the  small  piece  of  brass  necessary  to  form  the  hinge, 
upon  the  other  end  of  the  rod — that  is  to  say,  the  piece 
marked  H  in  Fig.  64.  Leave  this  for  the  present,  how- 
ever, not  attempting  at  present  to  cut  either  the  piston-rod 
or  valve-rod  to  its  intended  length.  You  cannot  do  this 
until  you  have  laid  down  the  exact  plan  of  the  engine,  and 
marked  on  the  bed-plate  the  position  of  all  the  parts. 


292  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

I  shall  now  suppose  that  you  have  finished  the  cylinder, 
with  its  slide-valve,  casing,  stuffing-boxes,  and  piston,  so 
that  you  have  these  in  exactly  the  state  in  which  you  might 
buy  them  at  Bateman's  and  elsewhere,  if  you  preferred,  to 
spare  yourself  the  trouble  of  boring  the  cylinder  and  fitting 
it.  You  can  buy  them  just  in  this  condition,  with  the  rest 
of  the  castings  in  the  rough ;  but  I  rather  hope  you  may 
prefer  to  try  and  do  for  yourself  the  not  very  heavy  or  diffi- 
cult work  which  I  have  described. 

I  suppose  you,  indeed,  to  have  bought  the  forked  con- 
necting-rod, either  arranged  for  brasses,  or  with  holea 
drilled  (or  to  be  drilled)  in  the  ends,  which  would  probably 
be  the  case  for  a  model  of  the  size  named,  and  also  the 
various  bearings,  guides,  and  so  forth  required — some  of 
which  would  have  to  be  turned,  and  some  filed,  but  which 
ought  now  to  present  little  difficulty  to  our  young 
mechanic. 

Try  to  keep  sharp  edges  to  all  your  filed  work,  unless  evi- 
dently intending  to  round  them ;  for  surfaces  pretending  to 
be  flat,  but  partaking  of  a  curved  sectional  form,  charac- 
terise the  workman  as  undeniably  a  bad  hand  with  the  file, 
and  not  worth  his  wages.  Still  I  may  tell  you  at  once  that 
nothing  is  so  difficult  as  to  use  a  file  well.  It  has  a  knack 
of  rounding  off  edges,  which  always  get  more  than  their 
proper  share  of  its  work.  But  this  being  the  case,  you  will 
know  what  to  try  and  avt  \.  Therefore,  always  endeavoui 


THE  ECCENTRIC.  293 


in  filing  a  flat  surface  to  make  it  slightly  hollow  in  the 
middle,  which  it  is  scarcely  possible,  however,  for  you  tc 
do ;  but  the  endeavour  to  effect  this  by  filing  the  middle 
more  than  the  edges  will  help  you  wonderfully  in  keeping 
the  latter  sharp.  Those,  for  instance,  on  the  fork  of  the 
connecting-rod,  especially  the  inside  ones,  should  be  as 
straight  and  sharp  as  possible  ;  and  if  you  round  the  out- 
side edge,  take  care  to  do  it  so  that  it  shall  be  evident  you 
intended  it;  and  so  with  all  edges,  whether  turned  or 
filed. 

The  disc  of  the  eccentric  can  only  be  turned  by  letting  it 
into  a  chuck  to  something  less  than  half  its  thickness,  and 
levelling  one  side  and  half  the  edge,  and  then  reversing  it; 
unless  you  prefer  to  drill  and  mount  it  on  a  spindle  upon 
its  centre.  If  you  do  this,  you  will  of  course  eventually 
have  two  holes  in  it ;  because  this  first  one  is  not  that  by 
which  it  will  be  mounted  when  in  place.  This  second  hole 
is  not,  however,  of  the  least  importance,  and  may  be  left 
without  plugging,  and,  if  preferred,  may  become  in  part 
ornamented  by  drilling  additional  holes,  and  filing  them 
into  some  pattern ;  or  if  it  is  desired  to  conceal  the  one  it 
was  turned  upon,  this  can  be  plugged  and  faced  off,  and 
will  then  not  be  the  least  apparent.  If  the  outer  ring,  or 
strap,  as  it  is  called,  is  to  be  made  in  two  pieces,  with  pro- 
jecting lugs,  it  is  evident  the  outside  edge  cannot  well  be 
turned ;  and,  unless  you  have  that  most  useful  addition  to 


294  THE   YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

the  lathe,  a  grip  or  jaw-chuck,  you  will  have  some  little 
difficulty  in  letting  the  ring  into  a  wooden  chuck,  so  as  to 
turn  the  inside.  The  solid  ring  is,  therefore,  preferable  (\\ 
you  use  the  first,  however,  you  turn  it  up  as  a  single  ring, 
and  then  saw  it  across  through  the  lugs),  which  can  be  let 
into  a  common  chuck,  with  a  place  chiselled  out  to  allow 
the  boss  to  project,  into  which  the  eccentric  rod  has  to  he 
screwed.  This  boss  also  has  to  be  drilled  and  turned  on 
the  outside.  There  are  several  modes  of  chucking  it  which 
can  be  applied,  but  the  simplest  is  to  use  the  carrier-chuck, 
and  to  let  the  ring  become  its  own  carrier  by  coming  against 
the  pin,  as  shown  in  Fig.  66,  A. 

When  the  ring  is  very  small,  I  should  first  drill  the  hole 
for  the  wire  rod,  and  then  screw  and  mount  it  upon  a  little 
wire  spindle,  as  in  fig.  B,  aiding  this,  if  necessary,  by  the 
back  centre.  But  the  smallest  models  require  to  be  put 
into  a  watch-maker's  lathe  or  throw,  and,  except  as  curi- 
osities, are  scarcely  worth  making. 

I  have  already  told  you  never  to  undertake  engine-mak- 
ing without  first  laying  down  a  full-sized  plan  on  paper, 
with  centre  lines  through  the  principal  parts,  from  which 
to  take  all  measurements,  and  to  mark  these  upon  the  base- 
plate, as  a  guide  to  the  perfect  adjustment  of  the  various 
parts.  Some  of  these  are  capable  of  a  little  extra  adjust- 
ment after  being  put  in  place :  the  eccentric  rod,  for 
instance,  can  be  lengthened  or  shortened  by  screwing  into 


THE  FLY-WHEEL.  ayi 

or  out  of  the  eccentric  ring;  and  the  piston-rod,  too,  may 
be  similarly  lengthened  or  shortened  slightly ;  but  try  to 
work  as  near  as  you  can  to  precise  measure  without  such 
adjustment. 

To  turn  the  fly-wheel,  which  is  the  last  operation  (in- 
cluding the  crank-axle),  it  is  better  carefully  to  drill  the 
boss,  if  not  already  done,  marking  the  centre  on  each  side, 
and  working  half  through  from  each,  so  as  to  insure  the 
squareness  of  the  hole  with  the  side' of  the  wheel,  which  is 
very  important.  Then  mount  it  at  once  upon  its  axle,  pre- 
viously turned  slightly  conical,  where  the  wheel  is  to  be 
placed,  and  run  both  together  in  the  lathe.  This  will 
insure  the  wheel  running  true  when  the  engine  is  put 
together. 

In  the  horizontal  engine  which  I  have  sketched,  the 
crank  is  quite  separate  from  the  axle ;  and  this  is  the  easiest 
way  to  make  it.  The  crank  itself  is  filed  up,  like  C  of  fig. 
66,  and  drilled  for  the  axle  and  the  pin  upon  which  the 
brasses  on  the  connecting-rod  work.  Turn  down  the  end 
of  the  crank-shaft  very  slightly  conical,  until  the  crank 
will  almost  go  over  it.  Then  heat  the  crank,  which  will 
expand  it  and  enable  you  to  slip  it  on  the  shaft.  Dip  it  in 
cold  water,  and  it  will  be  as  firm  as  if  made  in  one  piece 
with  the  axle.  This  is  called  shrinking  it  on,  and  the 
operation  will  often  stand  you  in  good  stead,  and  save  the 
trouble  of  filing  key-ways  and  making  the  small  wedges 


t96  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

called  keys.  The  pin  D  can  in  this  case  be  turned 
np  separately,  and  screwed  in,  which  will  complete  the 
work. 

The  eccentric  must  evidently  be  placed  in  position  before 
the  crank  is  added,  and  this,  too,  might  be  shrunk  on,  were 
it  not  that  it  cannot  easily  be  fixed  in  a  model  until  the 
engine  is  set  up.  The  best  way,  therefore,  is,  in  this  case, 
to  turn  the  eccentric  with  a  little  projecting  boss  to  take 
a  set  screw,  E,  Fig.  66. 

Where  the  axle  has  to  pass  through  bearings,  it  must  be 
turned  down  at  these  parts,  so  that  the  whole  will  be  like  F. 
First  on  the  right  is  the  journal,  e,  then  the  place  for  the 
fly-wheel,  d,  very  slightly  conical — the  smallest  part  being 
towards  e — then  the  second  journal,  and  then  another 
slightly  conical  part,  the  smallest  end  towards  #,  to  take 
the  eccentric  and  crank.  The  fly-wheel  you  will  key  on  shaft, 
thus  : — G  represents  the  boss  or  centre  of  the  wheel  bored 
for  the  axle,  and  a  key-way  or  slot  filed  on  one  side  at  a. 
There  is  a  flat  place  filed  on  the  axle,  and  the  wheel  is 
turned  round  to  bring  this  opposite  to  the  key-way.  A 
wedge  or  key,  £,  is  then  driven  in,  which  keeps  the  wheel 
secure,  and  prevents  it  from  turning  round  or  working 
loose  on  the  axle.  If  inconvenient  to  turn  a  boss  and  add 
a  set-screw  to  the  eccentric,  this  also  may  be  keyed  in  its 
place  after  its  position  has  been  found ;  but,  for  the  latter 
purpose,  it  should  fit  rather  tightly  on  the  axle,  so  that  if 


DIAGRAMS. 


ao; 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


can  be  just  moved  round  with   the  finger  stiffly  until  its 
position  with  respect  to  the  crank  is  ascertained. 

This  position  I  shall  now  endeavour  to  explain,  using  s 
di^^Tam  from  an  American  work,  in  which  this  generally 
supposed  difficult  point  is  thus  ably  and  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained. First,  put  your  engine  together  as  if  for  work, 
and  having  cut  the  eccentric  rod  to  about  the  length  you 
seem  to  require,  judging  from  your  plan  drawn  upon  the 
bed-plate,  turn  round  the  eccentric,  with  your  fingers  upon 
the  crank-shaft,  and,  having  removed  the  cover  of  the 
va]  e-box,  so  that  you  can  see  the  action  on  the  valve 
watch  the  motion  of  the  latter.  Doubtless,  the  result  will 
be  that  one  of  the  steam-ports  will  be  opened  clear  to  the 
exhaust-port,  while  the  other  is  nearly  or  entirely  shut. 
The  rod  is  then  too  long  or  too  short.  If  in  a  horizontal 
engine  the  port  nearest  to  the  crank  is  wide  open  and  the 
other  shut,  the  rod  is  too  long,  and  must  be  shortened  half 
the  difference  only  {you  will  do  this  by  screwing  it  farther 
into  the  eccentric  hoop).  When  the  valve  "  runs  square," 
or  opens  and  shuts  the  ports  correctly,  set  the  eccentric  as 
in  the  diagram,  H,  in  respect  to  the  crank,  i.e.,  with  its 
widest  part  at  right  angles  to  it.  By  running  square  is 
me'rfit  that  when  the  eccentric  is  turned  round  as  described, 
thi  valve  opens  the  ports  equally,  and  does  not  affect  one 
more  than  the  other.  The  line  a  of  the  diagram  shows 
that  the  position  of  the  eccentric  may  advantageously  be  a 


THE  BOILER.  299 


little  beyond  the  right  angle  to  the  crank,  to  give  what  is 
called  "lead,"  i.e.,  to  open  the  valve  a  little  before  the 
piston  commences  its  return-stroke. 

The  boilers  of  model  engines  are  made  of  tin,  sheet-brass, 
or  copper ;  seldom  of  the  latter,  which  is,  nevertheless,  by 
far  the  best  material,  and  one  that  you  can  braze,  rivet,  or 
solder  satisfactorily,  or  bend  into  any  shape  with  a  hammer 
or  wooden  mallet.  When  polished,  too,  its  rich  red  colour 
is  very  handsome.  Brass  is  chiefly  used  from  the  facility 
of  obtaining  tubes  of  it  ready  brazed  or  soldered,  from 
which  any  desired  length  can  be  cut.  A  brazed  copper 
boiler  will  stand  a  great  deal  of  pressure ;  will  tear,  and 
not  fly  into  pieces  when  it  bursts ;  and  may  be  heated  after 
the  water  has  boiled  away  without  suffering  any  injury.  It 
would  certainly  not  be  worth  while  to  make  one  for  a  model 
engine  with  a  half-inch  cylinder,  but  for  one  of  1  inch  dia- 
meter and  2  J  stroke  ;  and  for  larger  sizes,  it  will  amply  repay 
the  trouble  ;  and  I  will  show  you  how  to  make  one,  with  a 
tube  or  flue  inside  to  add  to  the  heating  surface. 

I  shall  endeavour  presently  to  give  the  proper  dimensions 
of  boilers  to  work  cylinders  of  given  diameters,  but  the 
general  directions  here  subjoined  apply  to  all  boilers  of 
models,  whether  large  or  small.  The  main  body  of  the 
boiler  is  generally  cylindrical,  and  is,  in  fact,  a  tube  of 
sheet-metal,  with  riveted,  brazed,  or  soldered  seams,  the 
last  greatly  predominating  in  the  toy  engines  ;  the  result  of 


?oo  THE  YOUXG  MECHANIC. 


which  is,  that  the  first  time  the  water  gets  too  low.  out 
drops  the  bottom,  or,  at  the  least,  divers  leaky  places  appear, 
and  the  boiler  is  obliged  to  go  to  the  tinman's  for  repair. 
its  beauty  being  ever  after  a  thing  of  the  past.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  braze  in  an  ordinary  fire ;  because  even  if,  by  blowing 
it  with  a  pair  of  bellows,  you  get  sufficient  heat,  you  cannot 
always  manage  to  apply  your  work  in  a  good  position,  as 
you  can  over  the  hot  coals  of  a  forge  fire,  where  there  are 
no  bars,  hobs,  or  other  parts  of  the  grate  standing  in  the 
way.  Moreover,  you  often  want  both  hands  free  just  as  the 
solder  commences  to  "  run,"  and  forge-bellows  will  keep  up 
the  blast  for  a  few  seconds  after  your  hand  is  taken  from 
the  staff  or  handle  of  them.  Still,  if  you  have  no  forge, 
which  is  probable,  you  should  make  a  fire  of  cinders  or  coke 
(the  latter  if  possible)  ;  and  if  you  can  contrive  a  grate  by 
putting  together  a  few  bricks  in  some  out-house,  with  a 
bar  or  two  of  hoop-iron  below  for  the  coke  to  rest  upon,  you 
will  have  a  far  more  convenient  fire  to  work  at  than  can 
possibly  be  obtained  in  any  ordinary  household  grate  or 
stove.  You  will  require  a  pair  of  light  tongs,  which  ought 
to  be  something  like  A,  Fig.  67 ;  but  it  is  quite  possible  to 
do  without  these  if  you  can  hold  your  work  in  any  other 
«vay ;  as,  for  instance,  with  a  loop  of  iron  wire  twisted 
round  it  and  left  long  enough  to  form  a  handle. 

The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  cut  a  strip  of  copper  large 
enough  to  make  the  required  tube.     A  piece  6  inches  wide 


THE  BOILER.  301 


will  roll  up  into  a  cylinder  of  about  2  inches  diameter  (the 
circumference  of  a  circle  being  nearly  equal  in  all  cases  to 
three  times  its  diameter,  or  measure  through  the  centre). 
If,  therefore,  you  want  one  6  inches  across,  which  is  the 
smallest  size  that  can  be  advantageously  fitted  with  a  flue 
or  internal  tube,  you  must  cut  it  out  18  inches  wide,  and  if 
it  is  8  in  length  to  the  bottom  of  the  steam  dome,  it  will 
be  a  large  and  serviceable  boiler,  fit  to  work  an  engine  with 
a  cylinder  of  \\  bore  by  2£  or  3  inch  stroke,  which  would 
drive  a  small  lathe.  But  observe  that  if  you  really  have 
pluck  and  skill  enough  to  try  }rour  hand  upon  an  engine 
that  will  give  you  real  power,  you  must  take  care  to  remem- 
ber that  "  the  strength  of  anything  is  the  strength  of  its 
7cerikest  part."  So  don't  make  the  very  common  mistake 
of  having  a  good  boiler  and  ample  cylinder,  and  then  fit 
the  engine  with  piston-rod,  valve-rod,  and  such  like,  too 
small  to  bear  the  strain  which  you  propose  to  put  upon  the 
engine.  Remember  that  every  screw  and  nut  and  pin  upon 
which  strain  is  liable  to  fall,  must  be  of  sufficient  size  and 
strength  to  bear  it  safely  :  if  not,  your  engine  will  not  only 
come  to  grief  in  the  heavy  trial,  but  it  is  quite  possible  that 
you  also  may  become  subjected  to  a  bad  scald  or  other 
disagreeable  consequence  of  your  error. 

Whatever  sized  strips  of  copper  you  use  for  a  boiler,  the 
edges  have  to  come  together  to  form  what  is  called  a  butt- 
joint;  i.e.t  they  do  not  overlap  like  the  ordinary  joints  you 


302  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

Eee  made  in  tin.  Before  you  coil  up  the  strip  into  a  tubular 
shape,  you  have  to  cut  out  holes  for  any  boiler  fittings  you  may 
wish  to  add,  such  as  safety-valve,  steam-dome,  and  gauges 
to  ascertain  the  level  of  the  water.  These,  however,  do 
not  all  come  into  the  cylindrical  part  of  our  present  boiler; 
the  gauge-taps  and  glass  water-gauge  alone  having  to  be 
provided  for.  The  man-hole,  too,  which  is  added  to  all 
large  boilers,  may  be  dispensed  with,  its  object  being  to 
enable  one  to  get  at  the  inside,  which  will  scarcely  be 
necessary  if  our  work  is  well  done  at  first.  A  boiler  of  the 
proposed  size  should  be  heated  with  charcoal,  as  it  would 
require  a  very  large  lamp ;  but  where  gas  can  be  obtained, 
it  may  be  preferabljr  used,  a  ring  gas-burner  being  placed 
below  within  the  furnace.  The  object  of  a  steam-dome, 
which,  in  a  horizontal  boiler,  would  have  to  be  placed 
somewhere  on  the  tube  itself,  is  to  prevent  what  is  called 
priming,  i.e.,  the  carrying  into  the  cylinder  water  as  well 
as  steam,  which  arises  from  the  spurting  caused  by  the 
violent  boiling  of  the  water.  The  dome  merely  provides 
a  chamber  for  dry  steam  above  the  general  level  of  the 
boiler,  the  steam-pipe  passing  from  it  direct  to  the  cylin- 
ders. Our  present  boiler  will  be  vertical  like  the  last,  but 
with  a  flue  up  the  middle,  and  a  grate  fitted  below.  It 
is  shown  complete  in  Fig.  67,  B,  with  all  the  fittings 
usually  attached. 

Having  coiled  up   the   tube   by  hammering   it   over  a 


BRAZING.  303 


cylinder  of  wood  turned  for  the  purpose,  a  little  smallei 
than  the  intended  size  of  the  boiler  (the  edges  having  been 
previously  filed  up  bright,  and  a  width  of  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  of  the  upper  being  similarly  cleaned  on  the  inside  all 
along  the  seam),  a  few  loops  of  iron  wire  are  tied  round 
it,  at  intervals  of  1  inch  or  \\  inches  ;  there  being  a  short 
piece  put  round,  and  twisted  together  at  the  ends  by  a 
pair  of  pliers.  The  object  of  these  is  to  prevent  the  seam 
from  opening  on  the  application  of  heat,  which  it  is  other- 
wise certain  to  do  by  the  expansion  of  the  metal.  Some 
borax,  pounded  in  a  mortar,  and  heated  to  drive  off  the 
water  of  crystallisation,  is  next  mixed  with  a  little  water 
to  form  a  creamy  paste,  and  smeared  along  the  inside  of 
the  tube,  upon  the  brightened  part,  the  full  length  of  the 
seam.  It  is  generally  better  to  heat  this  salt  first  suffi- 
ciently to  dry  it  (or  rather  fuse  it),  because  it  swells 
prodigiously  by  the  first  application  of  heat,  and  if  the 
spelter  is  laid  on  it,  it  often  carries  it  off;  after  once 
fusing,  it  only  melts  quietly. 

Before  applying  the  little  lumps  of  spelter,  turn  over 
the  tube  to  heat  the  part  opposite  to  the  seam,  so  as  to 
equalise  the  expansion.  Then  hold  it  in  a  pair  of  light 
tongs,  lay  the  spelter  all  along  upon  the  borax,  and  expose  it 
without  actually  touching  the  coals  to  the  heat  of  the  fire, 
urged  by  a  strong  blast.  Continue  this  until  a  blue  flame 
arises,  which  shows  that  the  spelter  has  melted ;  this  blue 


3o4  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

flame  being,  in  fact,  that  caused  by  the  burning  of  the 
zinc  in  the  solder — spelter  being  copper  and  zinc  fused 
together,  or,  if  required  softer,  brass,  tin,  and  zinc.  The 
former  is  generally  used,  however,  on  copper.  When  the 
blue  flame  arises,  the  solder  runs  into  the  joint,  and  the 
work  is  done.  With  the  hardest  of  these  spelters,  a  red 
heat  will  not  seriously  affect  the  joint,  and,  therefore,  if  at 
any  time  the  water  should  get  below  the  line  of  this  seam, 
so  that  it  becomes  exposed  to  the  heat,  no  harm  will  be 
done.  Nevertheless,  this  ought  never  to  occur,  as  a  gauge 
should  be  attached  to  every  boiler  to  show  the  exact 
position  of  the  water  at  any  given  time. 

The  inside  tube  of  this  boiler  will  be  seen,  from  the 
section,  to  be  conical  up  to  the  level  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  chimney.  This  is  of  copper,  brazed  like  the  cylindrical 
part,  and  is  2  inches  wide  below,  and  1  inch  above ;  con- 
sequently, the  strips  to  make  it  must  be  6  inches  wide  at 
one  end,  and  taper  to  3  inches  at  the  other.  If  the  dome 
rises  2  inches  from  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  it 
will  be  sufficient ;  and  as  this  is  a  difficult  piece  of  work 
for  a  boy  to  manage,  a  coppersmith  should  be  asked  to 
hammer  the  dome  into  the  required  form,  as  he  will  know 
from  experience  the  best  size  of  circular  disc  to  use  for  the 
purpose.  This  part  is  so  far  removed  from  the  action  of 
the  fire  that  it  may  safely  be  soldered,  but  it  is,  never- 
theless, aa  well  to  rivet  it,  turning  out  both  the  edge  of  the 


RIVETING  AND  BRAZING.  305 

cylinder  and  that  of  the  dome.  Use  copper  rivets,  and 
make  the  holes  half  an  inch  apart.  If  you  find  any 
leakage,  you  can  run  a  little  solder  into  the  joint  on  the 
inside.  The  bottom  of  the  boiler  may  be  quite  flat  and 
brazed,  a  few  rivets  being  first  put  in  to  hold  the  parts 
accurately  together.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  tube 
which  passes  through  both  this  and  the  dome.  There  is 
nothing  equal  to  riveting  and  brazing  for  this  kind  of 
work. 

I  may  as  well  state  however  here,  that  as  such  a  boiler 
as  I  have  now  described  is  worth  very  good  work,  it  would 
be  a  great  pity  to  spoil  it ;  and  it  will  be  better  to  content 
yourself  with  smaller  boilers  and  engines  soldered,  where 
necessary,  until  you  have  had  some  practice  in  brazing. 
This  indeed  is  not  difficult  in  reality,  but,  at  the  same  time, 
requires  great  care,  because  sometimes  the  solder  anc?  the 
work  melt  at  so  nearly  the  same  temperature,  that,  like  a 
bad  tinker,  you  will  sometimes  make  two  holes  instead  of 
mending  one.  The  brass,  for  instance,  used  for  beer-taps 
is  very  soft,  and  contains  lead,  and  to  a  certainty  would 
itself  melt  before  ordinary  spelter,  and  could  not  there- 
fore be  brazed  ;  but  the  best  Bristol  brass,  or  yellow  metal, 
will  braze  easily.  A  blacksmith,  brazing  a  key  or  other 
iron  article,  will  braze  it  in  a  different  way,  using  brass 
wire,  with  which  he  will  envelop  the  parts  thickly  which 
are  to  be  united,  after  securing  their  position  with  iron 

u 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


BOILERS  307 

binding-wire.  He  then  sprinkles  with  borax,  and  heata 
the  work  until  the  wire  runs  into  the  joint ;  after  which  he 
files  and  cleans  off  leveL  This  makes  a  very  good  medium. 

I  have  spoken  of  riveting  in  this  place.  There  is  no 
difficulty  in  this  work.  You  can  buy  copper  rivets  of  all 
sizes,  and  have  only  to  punch  holes,  put  a  rivet  in  place, 
and  hammer  it  so  as  to  spread  the  metal  to  form  a  second 
head.  If  the  rivets  are  heated  before  being  applied,  they 
will  draw  the  parts  closer  together,  because  they  shrink 
in  cooling.  All  large  boilers  are  made  in  this  way,  but 
smaller  ones  of  iron  are  often  melded ',  where  such  a  mode  of 
junction  is  possible.  When  you  can  rivet  boilers  water 
and  steam  tight,  you  will  find  no  difficulty  in  constructing 
them,  for  you  can  make  riveted  joints  where  brazing 
would  be  difficult  or  impossible. 

Fig.  67,  B,  is  a  half-section  of  such  a  boiler  as  I  have 
just  described.  Fig.  68,  A,  is  the  lower  part,  which  is 
separate,  and  forms  the  furnace  in  which  the  boiler  stands, 
fitting  it  closely.  This  is  drawn  to  scale,  and  is  half  the 
real  size,  a  is  the  steam-pipe,  fitted  high  up  in  the  dome, 
the  "ap,  £,  serving  to  turn  on  or  off  the  supply  of  steam  for 
the  cylinder ;  c  is  the  safety-valve  shown  in  section,  and 
care  must  be  always  taken  to  make  the  conical  part  short 
and  of  a  large  angle,  or  it  may  stick  fast,  and  cause  an 
explosion ;  d  is  the  glass  gauge,  to  show  the  exact  height 
of  the  water  in  the  boiler.  Its  construction  will  be  under- 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


BOILERS.  309 


gtood  from  the  other  which  is  attached,  where  the  boiler  is 
seen  in  section.  There  is  no  need  to  have  two,  and  this  is 
added  solely  to  explain  the  nature  of  glass-gauges.  The 
top  and  bottom  are  of  brass,  being  tubes  screwing  into  the 
boiler,  or  fastened  by  a  nut  inside ;  a  tube,  ^,  of  thick 
glass,  connects  these  two,  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  tube, 
one  end  of  which  opens  into  that  part  of  the  boiler  which 
is  full  of  steam,  the  other  opening  below  the  water-level. 
Thus  the  tube  forms  practically  part  of  the  boiler,  and  the 
level  of  the  water  is  clearly  seen.  The  lower  tap  is  used 
for  blowing  off  water,  to  insure  the  communication  being 
kept  open,  as  it  might  get  stopped  up  with  sediment. 

Gauge-cocks,  e,  f,  are  generally  added,  even  where  the 
glass  water-gauge  is  used.  One  of  these  should  always 
give  steam,  the  other  water, — the  level  of  the  latter  being 
between  the  two.  If  the  upper  one  gives  water,  the  boiler 
is  too  full;  if  both  give  steam,  the  boiler  needs  to  have 
water  added.  With  these  fittings,  even  a  soldered  boiler 
ought  never  to  get  burnt,  and  will  last  a  long  time  with 


The  lower  part,  Fig.  67,  is  made  like  that  before  described, 
iicept  that,  being  intended  for  charcoal,  a  circular  grate 
is  used,  which  simply  rests  upon  little  brackets  fixed  by 
rivets  for  this  purpose.  The  flame  and  heat  play  upon  the 
bottom  of  the  boiler,  and  also  pass  up  the  central  tube — 
the  latter  adding  greatly  to  the  quantity  of  steam  produced. 


310  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

This  furnace,  when  lighted,  may  be  fed  with  bits  of  coke  as 
well  as  charcoal,  about  the  size  of  filberts,  and  will  give 
plenty  of  heat.  If  the  draught,  however,  is  deficient,  turn 
the  waste  steani  into  the  tube,  so  as  to  form  a  jet  at  each 
stroke,  and  it  will  greatly  increase  it.  It  is  in  this  way 
that  the  locomotive  engines  are  always  fitted,  George 
Stephenson  having  first  suggested  the  arrangement.  Pre- 
viously to  this  a  fan  had  been  fitted  below  the  grate,  which 
was  put  in  rapid  motion  by  the  engine,  and  thus  a  suffi- 
cient draught  was  obtained. 

THE  SAFETY-VALVE. 

To  find  out  what  pressure  is  exerted  by  the  safety-valve 
it  must  be  clearly  understood  upon  what  principle  it  acts>. 
I  have  in  a  previous  chapter  told  you  that  the  atmospheric 
pressure  equals  15  Ibs.  on  each  square  inch,  so  that  if  ths 
surface  of  the  valve  which  is  exposed  to  the  air  is  1  inch 
in  area  or  surface,  it  is  pressed  down  with  a  force  of  15  Ibs. 
The  steam,  therefore,  inside  the  boiler  will  not  raise  it  until 
its  elasticity  exceeds  this  atmospheric  pressure.  If,  there- 
fore, we  desire  to  have  only  just  15  Ibs.  per  square  inch 
pressing  against  the  inside  of  the  boiler  (i.e.,  a  pressure  of 
"  one  atmosphere,"  as  it  is  called),  we  have  only  to  load 
the  valve  so  that,  inclusive  of  its  own  weight,  it  shall 
equal  15  Ibs.  But  it  is  plain  that  we  must  not  load  it  at 
all  in  reality ;  for  a  flat  plate,  1  inch  square,  of  no  weight, 


STEAM  PRESS  URE.  3 1 1 

is  all  that  is  needed,  the  atmosphere  itself  being  the  load. 
Suppose,  then,  that  we  do  load  it  with  15  Ibs.  in  addition  to 
the  15  Ibs.  with  which  nature  has  loaded  it,  we  shall  not 
find  the  steam  escape  until  it  presses  with  a  force  of  30  Ibs. 
on  the  square  inch,  or  two  atmospheres  (which,  however, 
is  not  30  Ibs.  of  useful  pressure  upon  one  side  of  the  piston, 
if  the  cylinder  is  open  as  in  an  atmospheric  engine,  but 
only  15  Ibs.)  This  is  not  the  strain  which  the  boiler  has 
to  stand,  because  the  atmosphere  is  pressing  upon  it  and 
counteracting  it  up  to  the  15  Ibs.,  so  that  this  strain  tend- 
ing to  burst  it  is  but  15  Ibs.  The  number  of  pounds,  there- 
fore, which  is  straining  the  boiler  can  readily  be  seen ;  being 
always  that  with  which  the  safety-valve  is  loaded,  and  this 
is  also  the  useful  pressure  for  doing  any  required  work.  Un- 
fortunately, however,  even  in  the  best  constructed  engines, 
a  pressure  of  15  Ibs.  upon  the  boiler  by  no  means  represents 
that  in  the  cylinder.  Now  it  would  be  inconvenient  to 
place  weights  upon  the  safety-valve  itself,  and  therefore  a 
lever  is  added,  as  seen  in  the  sketch,  with  a  weight  hung 
at  one  end  of  it.  This  is  shown  at  B,  Fig.  68,  where  a 
section  of  the  valve  is  given  with  its  stem  passing  through 
a  guide  to  insure  the  correct  motion  of  the  valve.  The 
lever  is  hinged  at  one  end  :  and  the  rule  of  the  pressure  or 
weight  which  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the  valve  is,  that  it 
is  multiplied  by  the  distance  at  which  the  weight  hangs 
from  the  valve,  compared  with  its  distance  from  the  hinge 


3ia  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

or  fulcrum.  If  a  weight  of  7  Ibs.  is  hung  at  1,  i.e.,  at  a 
distance  as  far  on  that  side  of  the  valve  as  the  fulcrum  ia 
on  the  other  side  of  it,  7  Ibs.  will  be  the  actual  power 
exerted ;  at  2,  where  it  is  twice  the  distance,  it  will  be 
doubled,  and,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  a  pressure  of  14  Ibs. 
will  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  valve;  while,  if  the  weight 
is  hung  at  3,  it  will  exercise  a  force  of  21  Ibs.  This  is  very 
easy  to  understand  and  to  remember.  Sometimes  (always 
in  locomotives)  the  weight  is  removed  and  a  spring  balance 
is  atl  ached  at  the  long  end.  Upon  this  is  marked  the 
actual  pressure  exerted;  there  being  a  nut  to  screw  down, 
and  thus  bring  any  desired  strain  upon  the  spring.  Mind, 
however,  in  case  you  should  try  this  in  any  of  your  models, 
that  the  scale  marked  on  the  balance  when  you  buy  it  must 
be  multiplied,  as  before,  according  to  the  length  of  your 
lever.  Thus,  u  1  Attach  such  a  balnnce  at  3  of  the  draw- 
ing, a  real  weight  of  5  u~  shown  by  the  balance  will  be 
3  x  5,  or  15  Ibs.  upon  the  valve,  and  a  balance  made  far 
such  engine  would  be  marked  15  Ibs.,  to  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  dangerous  error. 

ENGINES  WITHOUT  SLIDE-VALVES  EASY  TO  MAKE. 

Having  been  led  on  from  the  atmospheric  engine  to  that 
of  Watt's,  and  to  slide-valve  engines  generally,  I  am  now 
going  backward  a  little  to  a  class  easier  to  make,  because 
they  have  no  slide-valves,  nor  oven  four-way  cocks ;  and 


OVERCOMING  DIFFICULTIES.  313 

then  I  shall  have  done  with  engines.  But  I  dare  say  some 
of  my  readers  will  wonder  why  I  have  said  so  little  about 
condensers  and  condensing  engines.  I  am  sure  they  will 
wonder  at  it  if  they  understood  what  I  explained  of  the 
advantage  of  a  vacuum  under  the  piston ;  so  that  1 5  Ibs. 
pressure  upon  the  piston  means  15  Ibs.  of  useful  work,  in- 
stead of  30  Ibs.  being  required  for  that  purpose.  But  con- 
densing engines  are  utterly  beyond  a  boy's  power.  They 
require  not  only  a  vessel  into  which  the  steam  is  injected 
at  each  stroke,  but  there  must  be  a  pump  to  raise  and 
inject  cold  water  to  condense  the  steam,  and  a  pump  to 
extract  from  the  vessel  again  this  water,  after  it  has  been 
used,  and  a  cistern,  and  cold  and  hot  wells ;  and  all  this  is 
difficult  to  make  so  as  to  act;  and  I  am  sure  no  boy  cares  for 
a  steam  engine  that  will  not  work.  Moreover,  I  have  given 
you  difficult  work  as  it  is — work  that  many  of  my  readers 
will  no  doubt  be  afraid  to  try — yet  I  did  it  on  purpose ; 
because  if  small  boys  are  unequal  to  some  of  it,  their  big 
brothers  are  not,  or  ought  not  to  be  ;  and  mechanical  boys 
must  look  at  difficulties  as  a  trained  hunter  looks  at  a 
hedge — viz.,  with  a  strong  desire  to  go  over  it,  or  through 
it,  or  any  how  and  some  how  to  get  to  the  other  side  of  it. 
Indeed,  you  must  ride  your  mechanical  hobby  very  boldly 
and  with  great  pluck,  or  you  won't  half  enjoy  the  ride. 
However,  I  am  quite  aware  that  I  have  led  you  into  several 
difficulties,  and  therefore  now  I  propose  to  set  before  yo?j 


3 14  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

some  easy  work  as  a  kind  of  holiday  task  which  will  send 
you  with  fresh  vigour  to  what  is  not  so  easy. 

The  engines  without  slide-valves  have  also  no  eccentrics 
and  no  connecting-rods.  There  is  just  a  boiler,  a  cylinder 
piston,  piston-rod,  and  crank,  and  you  have  the  sum  total, 
save  and  except  the  fly-wheel.  These  are  direct-action 
engines,  the  cylinders  of  which  oscillate  like  a  pendulum, 
and  the  piston-rod  itself  is  connected  to  the  crank,  doing 
away  with  the  necessity  for  guides. 

Fig.  69,  A,  shows  one  of  these  engines,  and  you  see  that 
the  cylinder  leans  to  the  left  when  the  crank  is  turned  to 
that  side ;  and  if  you  turn  the  wheel  to  the  right,  the  crank 
will  presently  cause  it  to  lean  the  other  way ;  and  thus,  as  it 
turns  on  a  pin,  or  "trunnion,"  as  it  is  called,  it  keeps 
on  swinging  from  side  to  side  as  the  wheel  goes  round. 

Now,  when  it  is  in  its  first  position,  the  piston  is  at  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder,  and  it  then  needs  to  have  the  stean. 
admitted  below  it  to  drive  up  the  piston ;  but  when  this 
has  passed  its  highest  position,  and  the  cylinder  is  turned 
a  little  to  the  right,  the  piston  must  be  allowed  to  descend, 
and,  therefore,  we  must  let  out  the  steam  below  it.  We 
ought,  at  the  same  time,  to  admit  steam  above  the  piston 
to  force  it  down ;  but,  in  the  simplest  models,  which  are 
sailed  single-action  engines,  this  is  not  done.  The  fly- 
wheel, having  been  set  in  motion,  keeps  on  revolving,  and, 
by  its  impetus,  sends  down  the  piston  quite  powerfully 


OSCILLATING  CYLINDERS. 


enough  to  overcome  the  slight  resistance  which  is  offered 
by  the  friction  of  the  parts. 

Now,  you  can,  I  daresay, 
easily  understand  that  it  is  pos- 
sible to  make  this  to-and-fro 
motjon  of  the  oscillating  cylin- 
der open  first  a  steam-port  to 
allow  steam  to  raise  the  piston, 
and  then  an  exhaust-port  to  let 
it  blow  off  into  the  air.  Thia 
is  exactly  what  is  done  in  prac- 
tice, and  it  is  managed  in  the 
following  manner  : — 

B,  of  Fig.  69,  shows  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder,  which 
is  a  solid  piece  of  brass  filed 
quite  flat  on  one  side,  and 
turned  out  to  receive  the  end 
of  the  brass  tube,  which,  gener- 
ally speaking,  is  screwed  into 
it  to  form  the  cylinder,  this 
being  the  easiest  way  to  make 
it.  In  the  middle  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  flat  side  you  see  a 
white  steam-port,  and  below  it 
a  round  white  spot,  which  is  the  position  of  the  pin,  or 


3i6  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC, 

trunnion,  on  which  it  oscillates.  Fig.  69,  C,  is  a  simila! 
piece  of  brass,  which  is  fixed  to  the  top  of  the  boiler.  Iii 
this,  on  the  left  of  the  upper  part,  is  also  a  port,  which  is 
connected  with  the  boiler  by  a  hole  drilled  below  it  to 
admit  steam.  On  the  right  is  also  a  port,  which  is  merely 
cut  like  a  notch,  or  it  may  go  a  little  way  into  the  V)ss, 
and  then  be  met  by  a  hole  drilled  to  meet  it,  so  as  to  form 
the  escape  or  exhaust  port.  Between  and  below  these  is 
the  hole  for  the  trunnion. 

Now,  you  can,  I  think,  see  that  if  the  cylinder  stands 
upright  against  this  block,  as  it  does  when  the  crank  is 
vertical  (or  upright)  and  on  its  dead  points,  the  port  at  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder  would  fall  between  the  two  on  this 
block  of  brass,  and,  as  they  are  both  flat  and  fit  closely,  no 
steam  from  the  boiler  can  enter  the  cylinder.  Nor  do  we 
want  it  to  do  so,  because,  if  the  crank  is  on  a  dead  point, 
no  amount  of  steam  can  make  the  piston  rise  so  as  to  move 
it.  But  now,  if  we  move  the  cylinder  to  the  left,  which  we 
can  do  by  turning  the  wheel,  we  shall  presently  get  the 
crank  at  right  angles  to  its  former  position,  and,  also,  we 
shall  bring  the  steam-ports  in  the  cylinder  and  block 
together,  so  that  steam  will  enter  below  the  piston.  But, 
practically  to  get  as  long  a  stroke  as  possible,  steam  is  not 
allowed  to  enter  fully  until  the  crank  is  further  on  than  in 
a  horizontal  position,  that  is,  approaching  its  lower  dead 
point ;  and  this  is  the  position  in  which  to  put  it  to  start 


DOUBLE-ACTING  ENGINES.  317 

the  engine.  By  altering  the  shape  or  the  position  of  the 
port  a  little,  we  can  so  arrange  matters  as  to  let  steam 
enter  at  any  required  moment. 

Steam  having  entered,  the  piston  will  rise  rapidly,  forcing 
up  the  piston,  and  presently,  by  the  consequent  revolution 
of  the  fly-wheel,  the  cylinder  will  be  found  leaning  to  the 
left,  and  at  this  moment  the  piston  must  evidently  begin 
to  descend.  At  this  very  time  the  steam-ports  will  have 
ceased  to  correspond,  but  the  port  in  the  cylinder  will  come 
opposite  the  exhaust-port  in  the  brass  block,  and  this  port 
is  made  of  such  size  and  shape  that  the  two  shall  continue 
to  be  together  all  the  time  the  piston  is  descending ;  but, 
the  moment  it  has  reached  the  end  of  its  downward  stroke, 
they  cease  to  correspond  in  position,  and  the  steam-port 
begins  again  to  admit  a  fesh  supply  of  steam. 

The  pillar  attached  to  the  brass  boss  has  nothing  to  do 
with  it,  but  is  one  of  the  supports  of  the  axle  of  the  fly- 
wheel, as  you  will  understand  by  inspection  of  A  of  this 
same  drawing. 

Such  is  the  single-action  model  engine,  of 'no power ',  but 
a  very  interesting  toy  and  real  steam  engine. 

The  double-action  engine  is  very  superior  to  the  foregoing, 
which,  I  may  remark,  has  no  stuffing-box,  and  of  which  the 
piston  is  never  packed.  I  may  also  add,  that  the  crank  is 
formed  generally  by  merely  bending  the  wire  that  forms  the 
axle  of  the  wheel,  and  putting  the  bent  end  through  the  hole 


3i8  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


of  a  little  boss  or  knob  of  brass,  screwed  to  the  end  of 
the  piston-rod.  Here  you  have  no  boring  of  cylinders 
to  accomplish,  but  the  cylinder  cover,  piston,  and  whee, 
(often  of  lead  or  tin)  require  the  lathe  to  make  them  neatlj . 
Many  an  engine,  however,  has  been  made  without  a  lathe, 
and  I  have  seen  one  with  a  bit  of  gun-barrel  for  a  cylinder, 
and  a  four-way  cock  of  very  rough  construction,  that  was 
used  to  turn  a  coffee-mill,  and  did  its  work  very  well  too. 

But  I  must  go  at  once  to  the  double-action  oscillating 
cylinder,  in  which,  although  a  similar  mode  of  admitting 
steam  is  used,  it  is  arranged  to  admit  it  alternately  above 
and  below  the  piston,  the  exhaust  also  acting  in  a  similar 
manner. 

After  the  explanation  I  have  given  yon,  however,  of  the 
single-action  engine,  you  will,  some  of  you,  I  think,  jump 
at  a  conclusion  almost  directly,  and  perhaps  be  able  to  plan 
for  yourselves  a  very  easy  arrangement  to  accomplish  the 
desired  end.  All  boys,  however,  are  not  "  wax  to  receive, 
and  adamant  to  retain  "  an  impression ;  for  I  have  known 
some  who  need  an  idea  to  be  driven  into  their  brains  with  a 
good  deal  of  hard  hammering.  Stupid  ? — No.  Dull  ? — No, 
only  slow  in  getting  hold,  and  none  the  worse  for  that  gener- 
ally, if  the  master  will  but  have  a  little  patience  ;  for  when 
they  do  get  hold,  they  are  very  like  bulldogs,  they  won't 
let  go  in  a  hurry,  but  store  up  in  most  retentive  minda 
what  they  learned  with  such  deliberation. 


CIRCULAR  PORTS.  319 

THE  DOUBLE-ACTION  OSCILLATING  ENGINE. 

The  cylinder  of  the  double-action  engine  is  of  necessity 
made  with  ports  very  similar  to  those  of  the  horizontal 
engine  already  described.  There  is  a  solid  piece  attached 
to  the  cylinder  as  before,  which  is  drilled  down  to  the  upper 
and  lower  part  respectively  of  a  central  boss,  turned  very  flat 
upon  the  face,  and  which  has  to  work  against  a  similar  flat 
surface  as  in  the  last  engine.  But  the  ports  in  the  latter 
are  four  instead  of  two,  and  in  an  engine  with  upright 
cylinder  would  be  cut  as  follows,  and  as  shown  in  Fig. 
TO,  C. 

Those  on  the  right  marked  st  are  steam -ports,  which,  being 
drilled  into  one  behind,  are  connected  with  the  boiler.  The 
other  two  marked  ex,  are  similarly  exhaust-ports  opening  into 
the  air.  The  spaces  between  a  b  and  c  d  of  fig.  C  must  be 
wide  enough  to  close  the  steam-ports  in  the  cylinder,  when 
the  latter  is  perpendicular  and  the  engine  at  rest.  When 
the  cylinder  leans  to  the  left,  oscillating  on  the  central  pin 
between  the  ports  in  the  middle  of  the  circle,  the  lower  port 
of  it  will  evidently  be  in  connection  with  the  steam-port  in 
C,  while  the  upper  port  of  the  cylinder  will  be  opposite  to 
the  exhaust.  As  the  cylinder  is  carried  over  towards  the 
right,  the  upper  steam-ports  will  come  into  action  in  a 
similar  way,  while  the  lower  exhaust-port  is  also  carrying 
off  in  turn  the  waste  steam.  The  impetus,  therefore,  of  the 


.520  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

fly-wheel  has  here  only  to  carry  the  ports  over  the  * 

a  b,  c  d,  and  to  prevent  the  crank  stopping  on  the  two  dead 

points.     This,  therefore,  is  a  genuine  double-action  engine, 


and  will  answer,  even  on  a  large  scale,  very  satisfactorily. 
If  you  do  not  quite  understand  the  action  of  these  ports,  cut 
out  two  pieces  of  card,  E  F.  Let  E  represent  the  cylinder. 
Draw  circles,  and  cut  two  ports.  Cut  another  piece  of  card 


DETAILS.  321 

to  represent  the  brass  block,  with  ports,  c  d;  pin  them 
together  through  the  centres  of  the  circles,  and  they  will 
easily  turn  on  the  pin,  Mark  the  ports,  so  that  you  will 
see  at  a  glance  which  are  steam  and  which  exhaust.  Now 
cut  out  the  ports  with  a  penknife,  and  as  you  work  the  two 
cards  together,  swaying  that  which  represents  the  cylinder 
to  and  fro  upon  the  other,  you  will  see  when  the  ports  in 
each  card  agree  with  one  another,  and  which  are  opposite  to 
which.  This  will  teach  you  far  better  than  any  further 
written  explanation.  You  will  also  see  that,  instead  of 
making  the  steam  and  exhaust  ports  respectively  with  a 
division  between,  the  two  steam-ports  may  be  in  one  curve 
united,  and  likewise  the  two  exhausts ;  but  take  care  not  to 
unite  the  exhaust  with  the  steam-ports.  There  is  no  way 
so  easy  as  this  of  reversing  the  action  of  the  steam;  it  is,  in 
fact,  a  circular  slide-valve,  but  wonderfully  easy  to  make, 
because  you  have  no  steam-case  to  make,  nor  any  attach- 
ments whatever. 

The  faces  of  the  valve  are  kept  in  close  contact  in  one  of 
two  ways — either  the  centre-pin  is  fixed  into  the  cylinder 
face,  and  after  passing  through  the  brass  boss  with  the 
ports,  is  screwed  up  with  a  nut  at  the  back ;  or  else  there  is 
fixed  a  small  pillar  or  upright  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
cylinder,  and  a  little  pointed  screw  passing  through  this 
presses  against  the  cylinder,  and  makes  a  point  of  resist- 
ance, against  which  it  centres,  and  on  which  it  turns.  This 

x 


THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


is  shown  at  fig.  A.  A  small  indentation  is  made  where  the 
point  comes  in  contact  with  the  cylinder. 

In  a  locomotive  engine  there  are  two  such  cylinders, 
working  against  opposite  faces  of  the  same  brass  block 
containing  the  ports.  The  cranks  are  also  two,  on  the 
shaft  of  the  driving-wheels,  and  are  at  right  angles  to  each 
other  ;  so  that  when  one  piston  is  at  the  middle  of  its 
stroke,  the  other  is  nearly  or  quite  at  the  end  of  it.  Thus, 
between  the  two  there  is  always  some  force  being  exerted 
by  the  steam;  and  the  dead  points  of  one  crank  agree  with 
the  greatest  leverage  of  the  other.  In  locomotives,  too,  the 
cylinders  generally  are  made  as  in  the  present  drawing, 
viz.,  to  oscillate  on  a  point  at  the  middle  of  their  length  ; 
but  it  is  just  as  easy  to  have  the  two  ports  meet  at  the 
bottom  instead,  so  that  the  point  of  oscillation  may  be  low 
down,  like  the  single-acting  cylinders  of  the  last  sketch, 
and  this  is  generally  done  when  the  cylinder  is  to  stand 
upright. 

There  is  no  occasion  for  me  to  draw  an  engine  with 
double-acting  oscillating  cylinders,  because  in  appearance 
it  would  be  like  the  single-acting  one  ;  but  whereas  the 
latter  is  of  absolutely  no  use,  seeing  that  the  greater  part 
of  its  motion  depends  on  the  impetus  of  the  fly-wheel,  the 
former  can  be  made  to  do  real  work,  and  is  the  form  to  be 
used  for  marine  and  locomotive  engines.  For  the  former, 
oscillating  cylinders  with  slide-valves  are  used  in  practice  ; 


TRUE  LABOUR.  323 


but  for  real  locomotives  fixed  cylinders  are  always  used. 
Of  course  either  will  answer  in  models,  and  it  will  be  good 
practice  to  try  both. 

I  have  now  given  sufficient  explanation  of  how  engine* 
work,  and  how  they  may  be  made,  to  enable  my  young 
mechanic  to  try  his  hand  at  such  work.  The  double-action 
oscillating  engines  especially  are  well  worthy  of  his  atten- 
tion, as  he  may  with  these  fit  up  working  models  of  steam- 
boats and  railway  trains,  which  are  far  more  difficult  to 
construct  with  fixed  cylinders  and  slide-valves.  I  shall 
therefore  close  this  part  of  my  work  with  a  description  of 
one  or  two  useful  appliances  to  help  him  in  the  manipula- 
tive portion  of  his  labour, — for  here,  as  in  most  other 
matters,  head  and  hand  and  heart  must  work  together. 
The  heart  desires,  the  head  plans,  tae  hands  execute.  I 
think,  indeed,  I  might  without  irreverence  bring  forward 
a  quotation,  written  a  very  L-ng  time  ago  by  a  very  clever 
and  scientific  man,  in  a  very  Holy  Book  :  "Whatsoever  thy 
hand  findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  all  thy  might."  Depend 
upon  it  success  in  lif  3  depends  mainly  upon  carrying  into 
practice  this  excellent  advice.  If  you  take  up  one  piece  ol 
work,  and  carelessly  and  listlessly  play  at  doing  it,  and 
then  lay  it  down  to  begin  with  equal  indifference  something 
else,  you  will  never  become  either  a  good  mechanic  or  a 
useful  raan.  If  you  read  of  those  who  have  been  great  men 
— lights  in  their  generation — yon  will  find  generally  that 


3a4  THE   YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

they  became  such  simply  by  their  observance  of  that  ancient 
precept  of  the  wise  man.  They  were  not  so  marvellously 
clever — they  seldom  had  any  unusual  worldly  advantages ; 
but  they  worked  "  with  all  their  might,"  and  success 
crowned  their  efforts,  as  it  will  crown  yours  if  you  do  the 
mm*. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

HARDENING  AND    TEMPERING    TOOLS. 

PROMISED  in  a  previous  page  to  describe  a  little 
stove  for  beating  soldering-irons,  and  doing 
other  light  work.  It  is  made  as  follows,  and 
will  be  found  very  useful. 

Fig.  71,  A,  is  a  tube  of  sheet-iron,  which  forms  the  body 
of  the  little  stove.  Four  light  iron  rods  stand  out  from  it, 
which  form  handles,  but  these  are  forked  at  the  ends,  and 
thus  become  rests  for  the  handles  of  soldering-irons,  or  any 
light  bars  that  are  to  be  heated  at  the  ends.  Below  is  a 
tray,  also  of  sheet-iron,  upon  short  legs  to  keep  it  off  the 
table — for  this  is  a  little  table-stove.  C  is  the  cast-iron 
grate.  You  can  buy  this  for  a  few  pence  first  of  all,  and 
then  you  fit  your  sheet-metal  to  it.  It  will  rest  on  three 
or  four  little  studs  or  projections  riveted  to  the  stove  in- 
side ;  or  you  can  cut  three  or  four  little  places  like  D,  not 
cutting  them  at  the  bottom  line,  a  b,  but  only  on  three 
suit's,  aiid  then  bend  in  the  little  piece  so  as  to  make  n 


3z6  2 'HE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 


shelf.  If  the  stove  is  about  4  inches  high  above  the  grate, 
and  2  or  3  inches  below  it,  and  6  inches  diameter,  it  will 
be  sufficiently  large  for  many  small  operations ;  but  that 
the  fuel  may  keep  falling  downwards  as  it  burns,  the  lower 
part  should  be  larger  then  the  upper,  and,  to  admit  plenty 
of  air  should  be  cut  into  legs  as  shown.  Round  the  top 
are  cut  semicircular  hollows,  in  which  the  irons  rest.  To 
increase  the  heat,  a  chimney  or  blower,  B,  is  fitted,  which 
has  also  openings  cut  out  to  match  those  of  the  lower  part, 
so  that  the  soldering-irons  can  be  inserted  when  this 
chimney  is  put  on.  If,  however,  this  is  not  required,  but 
only  a  strong  draught,  by  turning  the  chimney  a  little,  all 
the  openings  will  be  closed.  A  still  longer  chimney  can 
be  added  at  pleasure.  A  hole  should  be  made  at  the  level 
of  the  grate  to  admit  the  nozzle  of  an  ordinary  pair  of  bel- 
lows. This  stove  you  would  find  of  great  service,  and  it 
may  be  fed  with  coke  and  charcoal  in  small  lumps.  Now 
you  may  make  the  above  far  more  useful.  It  will  make  a 
regular  little  furnace,  and  not  burn  through,  if  you  can  line 
it  with  fireclay.  In  London  and  large  towns  you  can 
obtain  this  ;  and  it  only  needs  to  be  mixed  up  with  water, 
like  mortar,  when  you  can  plaster  your  stove  inside  an  inch 
thick  or  more,  making  it  so  much  larger  on  purpose. 
There  is  no  need  to  do  this  below  the  level  of  the  grate  ; 
but  if  you  cannot  get  fireclay,  you  may  do  almost  as  well 
by  getting  a  blacklead-meltingpot  from  any  ironfoundry, 


DETAILS  OF  CONSTRUCTION 


327 


and  boring  a  few  holes  round  the  bottom  for  air,  and  fitting 
it  inside  your  little  iron  stove.  In  this  you  can  obtain 
heat  enough  to  melt  brass,  and  it  will  last  a  great  deal 


Fig.  71. 

longer  than  the  iron  alone,  which  will  burn  through  if  you 
blow  the  fire  much  ;  but  for  general  soldering,  tempering 
email  tools,  and  so  forth,  you  need  not  blow  the  fire,  as 
the  hood  and  chimney  will  sufficiently  increase  the  heat. 
There  is  no  danger  in  the  use  of  this  little  fireplace,  but 
of  course  you  would  not  stand  it  near  a  heap  of  shavings, 
unless  you  are  yourself  a  very  careless  young  "  shaver." 

HOW  TO  TEMPER  TOOLS. 

There  is  no  reason  why  the  young  mechanic  should  not 


328  2 HE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

be  told  how  to  make  his  own  tools,  and  how  to  harden  and 
temper  them,  because  he  ought  to  be  a  sort  of  jack-of-all- 
trades ;  and  perhaps  he  may  break  a  drill  or  other  sniajl 
tool  just  in  the  middle  of  some  special  bit  of  work,  or  hi§ 
drill  may  be  just  a  little  too  small  or  too  large,  aud  there 
he  will  be  stuck  fast  as  a  pig  in  a  gate,  and  unable  w  -set 
himself  right  again  any  more  than  the  noisy  squeaker 
aforesaid.  But  to  a  workman  a  broken  drill  means  just 
five  minutes'  delay,  and  all  goes  on  again  as  merrily  as 
before ;  and  as  we  wish  to  make  our  young  readers  work 
men  and  not  bunglers,  we  will  teach  them  this  useful  art 
at  once. 

Drills,  are  made  of  steel  wire  or  rods  of  various  sizes. 
In  old  times  they  were  made  square  at  one  end,  to  fit  lathe- 
chucks  or  braces,  but  now,  for  lathe-work,  they  are  gener- 
ally made  of  round  steel,  and  fastened  into  the  chuck  with 
a  set  screw  on  one  side.  In  this  way  they  can  be  more 
easily  made  to  run  true.  But  there  are  so  many  kinds  of 
drills  that  I  suppose  I  had  better  go  into  the  matter  a 
little — only  I  have  not  room  to  say  much  more. 

Look  at  Fig.  72,  and  you  will  see  some  of  the  more  usual 
forms  of  drills  used,  but  these  are  by  no  means  all.  You 
will  not  indeed  require  such  a  collection ;  and  yet,  if  you 
should  grow  from  a  young  mechanic  into  an  old  one,  I  dare- 
say you  will  find  yourself  in  possession  of  several  of  them. 
The  first,  labelled  1,  is  the  little  watchmaker's  drill,  of 


DIFFERENT  DRILLS. 


which,  nevertheless,  this  would  be  considered  a  very  large 
size.  It  is  merely  a  bit  of  steel  wire,  with  a  brass  pulley 
upon  it,  formed  into  a  point  at  the  largest  end,  and  into  a 


Pig.  78. 

-  drill  at  the  other.  The  way  it  is  worked  is  this :  At  the 
side  of  the  table-vice — that  is,  at  the  end  of  its  jaws  or 
chops  or  chaps— are  drilled  a  few  little  shallow  holes,  in 
which  the  watchmaker  places  the  point  at  the  thickest  end; 
the  drill-point  rests  against  the  work,  which  he  holds  in 
his  left  hand.  A  bow  of  whalebone,  a,  has  a  string  of 
fine  gut  such  as  is  used  for  fishing,  or,  if  the  drill  is  very 
email,  a  horse-hair ;  and  this  is  given  one  turn  round  the 


330  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

brass  pulley  before  the  drill  is  placed  in  position.  The 
bow  is  then  moved  to  and  fro,  causing  the  drill  to  revolve 
first  in  one  direction  and  then  in  the  other.  The  general 
work  is  in  thin  brass,  and  therefore  these  little  tools  are 
sufficiently  strong  for  the  purpose.  Some  of  the  drills  and 
broaches  (four  or  five,  or  even  six  sided  wires  of  steel)  are 
so  fine  that  they  will  bend  about  like  a  hair,  and  yet  are 
so  beautifully  made  and  tempered  as  to  cut  steel. 

No.  2  is  a  larger  drill,  even  now  much  used.  In  prin- 
ciple it  is  exactly  similar  to  the  last,  but  the  pulley  it> 
replaced  by  a  bobbin  or  reel  of  wood,  made  to  revolve  by  a 
steel  bow  with  a  gut  string,  or  a  strong  wooden  bow.  The 
drills,  too,  are  separate,  and  fit  into  a  socket  at  the  bottom 
of  the  drill-stock.  The  large  end  is  pointed,  as  in  the  last, 
and  is  made  to  rest  in  one  of  the  holes  in  a  steel  breast- 
plate, 6,  which  is  tied  to  the  chest  of  the  operator,  who,  by 
leaning  against  it.  keeps  the  drill  to  its  work,  while  both 
hands  are  free  to  hold  the  latter  steady.  There  is  a  modi- 
fication of  this  tool,  invented  by  a  Mr  Freeman,  intended 
to  do  away  with  the  bow.  The  bobbin  or  reel  is  turned 
without  raised  ends,  and  is  worked  by  a  flat  strip  of 
wood  covered  with  india-rubber,  and  turned  at  one  end  to 
form  a  convenient  handle.  The  having  to  twist  the  bow- 
string round  the  drill,  which  is  always  a  bother,  is  thus 
done  away  with. 

No.  4  is  a  drill-stock  similar  to  the  last,  but  in  place  of 


ARCHIMEDEAN  DRILLS.  331 


the  breast-plate  a  revolving  head  or  handle  is  put  to  the 
top,  in  which  the  point  works.  This  is  held  in  one  hand, 
while  the  drill-bow  is  worked  by  the  other.  This  is  also 
generally  held  against  the  chest,  as  the  hand  alone  does 
not  give  sufficient  pressure.  Heavy  work,  however,  can- 
not well  be  done  by  these  breast-drills,  and  they  are  liable 
to  cause  spitting  of  blood  from  the  constant  pressure  in 
the  region  of  the  heart  and  lungs. 

No.  3  is  the  Archimedean  drill-stock,  now  very  common , 
but  originally  invented  by  a  workman  of  Messrs  Holt- 
zapfiel's,  the  eminent  lathemakers  of  London.  It  now 
comes  to  us  as  an  American  drill-stock.  It  is  a  long 
screw  of  two  or  more  threads,  with  a  ferule  or  nut  working 
upon  it.  The  upper  end  revolves  within  the  head,  which  is 
of  wood ;  the  lower  end  is  formed  into  a  socket  to  receive 
the  drills,  which  revolve  by  sliding  the  ferule  up  and  down. 
Some  are  14  inches  long,  and  others  not  more  than  5. 
The  first  are  used  with  the  pressure  of  the  chest,  the  latter 
with  that  of  the  left  hand.  For  light  work  these  are  very 
useful,  and  you  will  seldom  need  any  other  in  the  models 
of  small  engines,  &c. 

No.  5  is  another  watchmaker's  drill,  but  serves  also  as  a 
pin- vice  to  hold  small  pieces  of  wire  while  being  turned  or 
filed  in  the  little  lathes  which  are  used  in  that  trade,  and 
which  are  worked  by  a  bow  with  one  hand,  while  the  tool 
is  held  in  the  other.  This  is  by  no  means  a  useless  tool, 


332  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

even  without  the  pulley.  It  is  made  by  taking  a  round 
(or  better,  an  octagon,  or  five  or  six  sided)  piece  of  steel, 
drilling  the  end  a  little  distance,  and  then  sawing  the 
whole  up  the  middle.  The  slit  thus  made  is  then  filed 
away  to  widen  it,  and  leave  two  jaws  at  the  end,  which 
grasp  the  pin  or  drill;  a  ring  slips  over,  and  keeps  the 
jaws  together. 

We  now  come  to  fig.  6,  which  represents  the  best  of  all 
drills  for  metal.  It  is  really  American  this  time,  and  does 
our  Transatlantic  cousins  great  credit,  as  does  the  machinery 
generally  invented  or  made  by  them  (the  Wheeler  and 
Wilson  sewing-machines  for  instance).  The  steel  of  which 
this  drill  is  made  is  accurately  turned  in  a  lathe,  and  the 
spiral  groove  is  cut  by  machinery.  This  groove  acts  in  two 
ways — first,  as  allowing  the  shavings  (not  powdery  chips)  to 
escape  as  the  tool  penetrates,  but  as  forming  the  cutting 
edges  where  they  (for  there  are  two)  meet  at  the  point. 
These,  however,  require  a  lathe  with  a  self-centring  chuck 
made  on  purpose.  They  are  sold  in  sets  upon  a  stand, 
chuck  and  all  complete,  and  each  is  one-thirty-second  of 
an  inch  larger  than  the  other.  Some  are  as  small  as  a 
darning-needle,  or  less,  and  they  run  up  to  an  inch  or  so  in 
diameter.  There  are  large  and  small  sets. 

We  now  pass  to  the  old-fashioned  smith's  brace,  fig.  7, 
shown  in  position,  drilling  the  piece  e.  Pressure  is  kept 
up  either  by  a  weighted  lever,  or  by  a  screw,  as  shown 


TO  MAKE  DRILLS.  333 

here.  The  brace  is  moved  round  by  the  hand  of  the  work- 
man. Very  often  this  tool  is  arranged  on  the  vice-bench, 
BO  that  the  work  can  be  retained  in  the  jaws  of  the  vice 
while  being  drilled.  Sometimes  it  is  mounted  on  a  separ- 
ate stand,  having  a  stool  below,  and  a  special  kind  of  vice 
-or  clamp  is  added.  Well  made,  this  is  not  so  bad  a  tool  as 
it  looks,  but  those  used  ordinarily  in  smiths'  shops  are  very 
clumsy,  and  do  not  even  run  true,  and  the  drills  are  badly 
made,  although  by  sheer  force  they  are  driven  through  the 
work. 

Whatever  form  of  drill-stock  is  used,  the  main  thing  is 
to  have  the  drills  properly  formed.  You  will  recognise  k 
and  n  as  common  forms,  than  which  m  is  considerably 
better.  For  cast-iron  n  would  not  be  a  bad  point,  because 
the  angle  is  great,  much  greater,  you  see,  than  k  ;  and  the 
bevels  which  form  the  cutting  edges  of  a  drill  should  also 
not  be  too  sharp,  as  they  are  generally  made,  for,  as  they 
only  scrape  away  the  metal,  their  edges  go  directly. 

The  common  way  to  make  a  drill  is  this  :  A  piece  of  steel 
wire  of  the  required  size  is  heated  until  red  hot  (never  to 
a  white  heat,  or  it  would  be  spoiled).  The  end  is  then 
flattened  out  with  a  hammer,  and  the  point  trimmed  with 
a  file.  It  is  then  again  heated  red  hot,  and  dipped  into 
cold  water  for  a  second.  Then  held  where  the  changes  of 
colour,  which  ensue  as  it  cools,  can  be  seen  plainly;  and  at 
Boon  as  a  deep  yellow  or  first  tinge  of  purple  become* 


354  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

visible,  it  is  entirely  cooled  in  water.  It  is  tlien  finished, 
except  as  regards  fitting  it  to  the  drill-stock,  which  may  be 
done  before  or  after  it  is  hardened,  because  care  is  taken 
only  to  dip  the  extreme  point.  To  get  proper  cutting 
edges  the  drill  is  taken  to  the  grindstone,  and  each  side  of 
the  point  is  slightly  bevelled,  but  in  opposite  directions,  so 
as  to  make  it  cut  both  ways.  It  is  not,  however,  left  of 
equal  width,  like  0,  but  the  flattened  sides  are  ground  away, 
so  as  to  make  more  of  a  point,  like  p  and  n. 

Now,  this  is  all  right  enough  as   regards   forging  and 
hardening,  and  tempering,  and  for  the  smallest  drills  this 
is  the  only  way  to  make  them.     (Only  watchmakers  heat 
them  in  the  candle  till  red,  and  then  cool  and  temper  b 
running  them  into  the  tallow.)     But  if  you  want  a  go 
drill  that  will  cut  well  and  truly,  you  should  file  away  t". 
sides  of  a  round  bar  like  »«,  only  spreading  the  point  ve 
slightly  indeed,  just  to  prevent  the  drill  sticking  fast  in  t' 
work.     Another  drill,  indeed,  is   spoken  of  very  highl 
which  is  also  carefully  made  like  m,  but  the  places  whi^ 
are  here  flat  are  hollowed  out  or  grooved  lengthwise,  t 
section  of  the  point — i.e.,  the  appearance  of  the  end  of  ti 
drill — becomes  rather  curious,  like  r.    I  am  assured  by  tin  >• 
who  have  used  them,  that  these  cut  quite  as  well  as  th< 
twist  drills  which  I  have  described  already.     These  which 
I  ain  now  speaking  of  are  also  American ;  and  I  don't  know* 
how  it  is,  that  somehow  America  is  a  far  better  place  foi 


FLOGGING  BY  STEAM!  335 

improvements  in  tools  and  machines  than  our  own  Old 
England.  And  if  I  had  a  wonderful  invention — a  nev 
birch-rod-making  and  flogging-machine  for  very  trouble- 
some boys,  for  instance — I  am  afraid  I  should  go  to  America 
to  patent  it ;  but  I  daresay  English  boys  would  not  object 
to  that 

To  teach  an  idle  boy  to  read, 

His  mind  be  sure  to  jog  ; 
But  if  he 's  very  bad  indeed, 

You  '11  be  obliged  to  flog. 

Yet  if  you  flog  him  day  by  day, 

He  '11  never  learn  to  read ; 
For  boys  require  a  lot  of  play 

To  make  them  work  with  speed. 

But  young  mechanics,  if  they  erf 

Or  join  the  lazy  team, 
Would  all,  as  I  suppose,  prefer 

To  be  well  flogged  by  steam. 

not,  they  had  better  not  let  me  patent  my  flogging- 
chine.     Luckily  it  is  not  invented  yet. 
The  cutting  edges  of  drills  come  under  the  same  rules  as 
ler  cutting  edges.     You  might,  for  instance,  hold  a  large 
11  flat  on  the  rest,  and  use  either  edge  as  a  turning-tool, 
u  will   see  at  once  that  these  edges  will  not  cut  if 
ade  in  the  usual  way,  but  only  scrape.     The  bevel  wanta 
>   be    ground   only  to   3°,   as  before  explained,  to    give 
he  proper  clearance,  and  the  cutting  edge  requires  to  be 
then  made  by  grinding  back  the  upper  surface,  which  is 
just  the  same  in  effect  as  is  produced  by  twisting  the  metal 


336  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

or  cutting  a  spiral  groove,  which  hollows  out  this  upper 
surface  and  gives  it  cutting  power.  It  is  no  use  grinding  a 
sharper-looking  bevel,  or  making  more  of  a  point — you 
only  weaken  the  edge ;  m  or  n  is  quite  pointed  enough, 
though  the  first  is  a  right  angle  and  the  second  greater ; 
and,  for  cast-iron,  a  rounded  point,  showing  no  angle  at  all, 
will  do  just  as  well,  or  better,  when  once  it  has  begun  to 
penetrate.  Do  not  be  deceived,  therefore,  by  making  drills 
look  pointed  and  keen,  for,  I  repeat,  they  are  scraping  tools 
only,  unless  you  file  an  edge  by  bevelling  back  the  upper 
face  of  each  side  of  the  point.  If  you  were  to  make  a  very 
thick,  strong  drill,  you  might  begin  by  grinding  back  the 
two  sides  to  3°,  to  form  the  accidental  front  line  of  the  point 
or  section  angle,  and  then  grind  back,  at  45° 'from  this  line, 
the  upper  face,  by  which  you  would  do  just  what  you  did  to 
give  the  graver  cutting  edges  of  60° — only  a  drill  thus 
formed  must  have  a  point  of  90°.  It  would  cut  in  tw^ 
directions,  like  one  for  a  drill  stock  and  bow. 

1  hope  my  bigger  boys  will  not  pass  over  the  remarks  on 
cutting  edges  interspersed  in  this  book,  for,  once  under- 
stood, they  will  be  found  to  be  most  valuable.  Indeed,  they 
cannot  work  intelligently  until  they  understand  exactly 
the  nature  and  principles  of  the  tools  which  they  have  to 
use.  In  drilling  iron,  use  water  or  oil,  or  soap  and  water, 
or  soda-water — either  will  do;  but  the  holes  are  drilled  in 
the  ships'  armour-plating  with  soap  and  water  to  cool  the 


DRILLS  AND  BORING-BITS.  337 

drill ;  and  very  well  it  answers,  for  these  plates  are  several 
inches  thick,  but  the  holes  are  soon  made.  When  working 
in  brass  and  gun-metal,  use  no  water,  but  work  the  drill 
quite  dry.  The  same  rules,  in  short,  apply  to  drilling  as 
to  turning  or  planing  metal ;  and  if  you  could  see  the 
action  of  a  well-made  American  twist-drill,  you  would  re- 
cognise this  similarity,  for  you  would  see  the  metal  come 
forth  in  long,  bright  curls,  as  pretty  and  shining  as  those 
of  your  favourite  young  lady  or  loving  sister — one  of  which 
you  have,  I  daresay. 

To  give  you  some  idea  of  what  a  straight  course  a  drill 
will  take,  if  rightly  made  and  skilfully  used,  I  may  tell  you 
that  a  twist-drill  has  been  run  through  a  lucifer-match 
from  end  to  end  without  splitting  it ;  and  as  to  the  fineness 
possible,  I  have  seen  a  human  hair  with  an  eye  drilled 
through  it,  by  which,  needle-like,  it  was  threaded  with  the 
other  end  of  itself. 

I  told  you  how  to  bore  a  cylinder,  which  is  but  drilling 
on  a  larger  scale,  and  in  Fig.  65  I  sketched  the  method  of 
doing  this  in  the  lathe  with  a  rosebit.  But  I  did  not  ex- 
plain another  tool  used  just  in  the  same  way,  but  which  will 
bore  holes  in  solid  iron  wonderfully.  Fig.  65,  L,  H,  K,  is 
one  of  these.  This  is  an  engineer's  boring-bit,  and  is  made 
of  all  sizes,  from  that  required  to  bore  the  stem  of  a  tobacco- 
pipe — (don't  smoke,  boys,  it  will  dry  up  your  brains) — to 
that  which  would  bore  a  cannon.  A  rod  of  steel  is  forged 

Y 


338  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

with  a  boss  or  larger  part  at  one  end.  This  is  centred  in  the 
lathe,  and  the  centre-marks  are  well  drilled,  and  not  merely 
punched,  especially  that  at  the  small  end.  The  boss  is  then 
turned  quite  cylindrical,  after  which  it  is  filed*  away  exactly 
to  the  diametrical  line,  as  you  will  see  by  inspection  of  L. 
The  end  is  then  ground  off  a  little  slanting,  to  give,  as 
before,  about  3°  of  clearance.  The  cutting  edge  thus  ob- 
tained, and  the  end  in  which  the  centre  hole  still  remains, 
are  carefully  hardened.  You  thus  have  a  tool  which  will 
bore  splendidly,  but  you  must  give  it  entrance  by  turning 
a  recess  first  of  all  in  the  work,  or  drilling,  with  a  drill  of 
equal  size,  a  little  way  into  the  material.  Used  like  the 
rosebit,  this  tool  will  run  beautifully  straight,  so  that  you 
can  bore  very  deep,  long  holes  with  it,  and  cylinders  can 
be  most  beautifully  bored  with  it.  I  think  you  would  be 
able  to  make  these  tools  with  a  little  care ;  but,  when  you 
harden  them,  only  heat  and  dip  the  extremities,  or  it  is 
ten  to  one  your  steel  rod  will  bend  and  warp  in  cooling, 
and  you  will  not  be  able  to  rectify  it.  If  the  ends  are  quite 
hard,  it  is  as  well  that  the  rest  should  be  soft,  as  the  tool 
will  not  then  be  so  liable  to  get  broken. 

There  are  many  other  tools  used  for  boring  iron  and  steel, 
but  you  need  not  trouble  yourself  at  present  to  learn  any- 
thing of  them — they  are  no  use  to  you  now. 

I  have  headed  this  chapter  "  Hardening  and  Tempering  " 

*  In  large  tools  this  is  not  done  by  the  file. 


OXYGEN.  339 


tools,  but  as  yet  I  have  only  partially  explained  the  process, 
which  is  a  very  curious  one  ;  and  though  the  result  is  highly 
necessary  in  many  cases,  it  is  by  no  means  well  understood 
what  really  takes  place  in  the  process,  or  why  this  effect 
should  occur  in  steel,  but  not  in  iron,  or  brass,  or  other 
metals. 

If  you  heat  a  piece  of  bright  steel  over  a  clear  gas  jet  or 
fire  which  will  not  smoke  it,  you  will  see  several  colours 
arise  as  the  metal  gets  hotter  and  hotter,  until  finally  it 
becomes  red.  These  are  due  to  oxidation,  which  is  so  long 
a  word  that  I  am  not  sure  I  can  stop  to  explain  it  thoroughly. 
Let  us  see,  however,  what  we  can  make  of  it.  The  air  we 
breathe  contains  two  gases,  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  with  a 
small  proportion  of  a  third  called  carbonic  acid.  Neither  of 
these  alone  will  support  life,  or  keep  the  fire  burning,  or 
enable  vegetables  to  live  and  grow,  but  it  is  the  first  which 
is  in  this  the  chief  support.  The  second  is  only  used  by 
Nature  as  we  use  water  to  brandy,  viz.,  to  dilute  it  and 
render  it  less  strong.  If  we  breathed  oxygen  alone,  we 
should  live  too  fast,  and  wear  out  our  bodies  in  a  few  hours. 
If  we  breathed  nitrogen  only,  we  should  die,  and  so  of  car- 
bonic acid.  Now  this  oxygen  seizes  upon  everything  in  a 
wonderful  and  sometimes  provoking  manner.  If  you  leave 
a  bright  tool  out  of  doors  to  get  damp,  down  comes  our 
friend  oxygen  and  rusts  it.  It  combines  with  the'iron  and 
makes  oxide  of  iron,  which  is  what  we  call  rust.  I  suppose, 


340  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

however,  this  oxygen  comes  more  from  the  water  than  the 
air,  hecause  water  is  made  also  of  two  gases,  hydrogen  and 
this  same  oxygen.  It  is  certain  that  oxygen  in  this  case 
always  finds  any  bright  tools  that  we  leave  about  in  the  wet, 
and  coats  them  with  a  red  jacket  very  speedily.  Then  if 
you  look  at  a  blacksmith  at  work,  you  will  see  scales  fall 
from  the  hot  iron  as  he  hammers  it.  These  are  black,  but 
our  old  friend  has  been  at  work,  and  united  with  the  red- 
hot  metal  and  formed  another  oxide  of  iron,  called  black 
oxide.  We  can  understand  this.  If  a  man  eats  a  good 
deal,  or  drinks  a  good  deal,  he  gets  red  in  the  face ;  if  he  eats 
till  he  chokes  himself,  he  gets  black  in  the  face,  and  I  sup- 
pose it  is  much  the  same  when  oxygen  eats  too  much  iron. 
Well,  when  we  begin  to  heat  the  steel,  down  comes  oxygen 
and  begins  his  work  ;  and  first  he  looks  very  pale ;  then  he 
gets  more  bilious  and  yellower ;  then  he  gets  hotter  and 
shows  a  tinge  of  red  with  the  yellow  forming  orange ;  then 
he  begins  to  get  purple,  then  blue,  then  deeper  blue ;  and 
finally  black  before  he  gets  absolutely  red  and  white  hot. 

Now  to  temper  steel,  we  first  heat  it  red-hot,  not  mind- 
ing these  colours,  and  then  we  cool  it  suddenly  in  cold  water. 
This  renders  it  very  hard  indeed.  No  file  will  cut  it,  or 
drill  penetrate  it ;  but  if  we  strike  it,  behold  it  breaks  like 
glass  !  This  is  too  hard  for  general  work,  for  the  edge  will 
break  and  chip  if  it  meets  with  any  hard  spot  in  the  metal, 
or  chances  to  bite  in  too  deep.  Its  teeth  are  too  brittle,  and 


TEMPERING.  341 


so  get  broken  off.  For  this  reason  we  have  to  "  let  down," 
or  temper,  the  tool,  and  we  proceed  as  follows :  The  part 
to  be  tempered  is  ground  quite  bright.  It  is  then  laid  upon 
a  bar  of  iron  heated  red-hot,  or  if  small,  it  is  held  over  a 
gas  jet  or  in  a  candle ;  heated,  in  short,  in  any  way  most 
suitable  and  convenient.  And  now,  first,  our  friend  oxygen 
puts  on  a  pale  yellow  face  as  before.  This  will  do  for  turn- 
ing steel  and  iron,  but  is  still  too  hard  for  general  work. 
Then  comes  the  orange,  and  this  presently  tends  slightly  to 
blue  ;  at  which  point,  if  the  tool  is  instantly  cooled  in  water, 
it  will  be  found  to  bear  a  good  edge,  hard,  but  sufficiently 
tough  for  work.  Most  tools  for  metal  and  drills  are  let 
down  to  something  between  the  yellow  and  blue,  and  we 
know  that  the  more  they  approach  blue,  the  softer  they  will 
be.  Thus  we  can  easily  manage  OFJ  tools  ; — some  to  bear 
hard  blows,  like  axes,  which  are  tampered  to  a  blue  colour  ; 
some  like  files,  which  a  blow  will  break,  but  which  are 
famous  for  their  own  special  work — these  are  let  down  only 
to  a  pale  yellow;  others,  like  springs  and  saws,  are  let 
down  to  a  more  thorough  blue,  because  they  are  required 
to  be  elastic  and  tough,  but  are  not  needed  to  be  so  par- 
ticularly hard.  Then  tools  like  turnscrews,  and  bradawls, 
and  gimblets  are  left  even  softer,  sometimes  not  tempered 
or  hardened  at  all,  but  just  forged  and  ground  to  the  re- 
quired shape. 

Now,  I  fancy  some  of  my  sharp  boys  will  say  that  the 


34*  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

first  description  I  gave  of  the  mode  of  hardening  and  tem- 
pering was  not  exactly  like  this;  nor  was  it,  yet  in 
principle  it  is  the  same.  For  instance,  if  you  give  a 
drill  to  a  smith  to  make,  he  will  do  as  I  then  said.  He 
will  heat  the  extreme  point  red-hot,  then  dip  the  point  in 
water,  give  a  rub  on  the  stone  or  bricks  of  the  forge,  and 
watch  the  colours.  This  can  be  doiie  when  the  tool  is  of 
sufficient  substance  to  retain  heat  enough  after  the  edge 
has  been  dipped  to  re-heat  that  edge  sufficiently.  In  this 
case  there  is  no  need  to  chill  the  whole  tool  and  then  heat 
it  again.  But  in  the  case  of  small  drills  and  tools,  pen- 
knife-blades, and  other  articles  of  this  nature,  there  will 
not  be  sufficient  heat  retained,  after  dipping,  to  bring  up 
to  the  surface  the  desired  colours ;  for  oxygen  likes  a 
hot  dinner  as  well  as  you  do,  and  if  the  iron  is  not  hot 
enough  he  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  it. 

One  great  difficulty  you  would  find  if  you  had  much 
tempering  to  do,  viz.,  that  the  articles  bend  under  the 
operation,  some  more  than  others.  Try  this :  Take  a  thin 
knitting-needle  when  the  owner  is  not  looking,  and  run  off 
with  it ; — it  is  all  in  the  cause  of  science  !  Heat  it  red-hot, 
and  with  a  pair  of  pliers  take  it  up  and  drop  it  sidewise  in 
a  basin  of  water.  It  will  bend  like  a  bow.  Heat  again, 
straighten  it,  re-heat,  and  thie  time  pop  it  in  lengthwise — 
endwise,  point  first — I  mean  (don't  you  see  that  a  round 
needle  has  no  sides,  and  puts  me  into  a  perfect  quagmire 


DURING  HARDENING.  343 

of  difficulty).  However,  you  will  understand  this,  and 
will  find  the  needle  not  bent  nearly  so  much  as  before,  but 
still  it  is  not  straight.  As  I  explain  most  things  as  I  go 
on,  I  may  as  well  explain  why  this  bending  occurs  before 
I  tell  you  how  to  straighten  your  work  again.  All  metals 
expand  with  heat,  and  contract  with  cold.  I  am  sure  1 
contract  terribly  in  the  winter  until  I  have  had  plenty  of 
hot  soup,  and  hot  roast-beef,  and  plum-pudding ;  and  I 
know  my  tempei  improves,  too,  when  I  get  expanded  and 
warm.  Well  now,  when  you  dropped  your  sister's  knit- 
ting-needle all  hot  on  its  side  into  the  water,  that  side 
contracted  before  the  other,  and  consequently  the  needle 
bent ;  but  when  you  put  it  in  the  water,  end  on,  it  was 
cooled  all  round  at  once,  and  if  you  could  but  cool  a  piece  of 
metal  equally  all  over,  inside  and  out,  at  once,  all  parts  would 
shrink  equally  fast,  and  the  article  would  remain  straight. 

But  there  is,  unfortunately,  another  cause  of  this  bend- 
ing, which  is,  that  all  articles  are  not  of  such  form  that 
the  same  quantity  of  metal  is  on  all  sides  of  the  axial 
line.  Take  a  half-round  file,  for  instance;  one  side  is  flat, 
the  other  curved,  so  that  taking  these  two  surfaces  into 
consideration,  one  contains  a  great  deal  more  metal  than 
the  other,  and  will  not  cool  at  the  same  rate.  These 
articles  are  far  more  liable  to  bend  than  those  whose  sides 
are  parallel.  Another  result  of  the  hot  mass  being  cooled 
most  quickly  on  the  outside  is,  that  cracks  are  produced  in 


$44  THE  YOUNG  MECHANIC. 

the  latter,  because,  so  to  speak,  the  skin  is  contracted,  and 
can  no  longer  contain  all  the  expanded  metal  within  it. 
Hence,  to  make  a  mandrel  for  a  lathe,  it  is  common  to  bore 
it  out  first,  before  hardening,  to  remove  this  mass  of  metal, 
and  to  allow  the  water  to  touch  it  inside  as  well  as  out. 
Such  mandrels  seldom  crack  or  bend. 

The  only  way  to  straighten  articles  which  have  warped 
by  hardening,  is  by  what  is  called  hacking  or  hack-ham- 
mering, which  is  nothing  more  than  hammering  the  con- 
cave or  hollow  side  with  the  edge  of  the  steel  pane  of  a 
hammer.  This  spreads  the  metal  upon  the  hammered  side> 
and,  by  expanding  it,  straightens  the  tool,  for  the  hollow- 
side,  remember,  is  that  which  was  too  much  shrunk  or  con- 
tracted. This  is  not  an  operation  you  will  have  to  do, 
especially  if  you  only  harden  the  extreme  points  of  the 
drills  and  httle  tools  you  make. 

There  is  another  way  of  hardening,  not  steel,  but  ironr 
called  tl  cate  hardening,"  because  it  puts  a  case  of  steel 
over  the  surface  of  the  metal.  Obtain  a  salt  called  prus- 
siate  of  potash.  It  is  yellow,  like  barley-sugar,  but  is 
poison.  Heat  the  iron  red-hot,  and  well  rub  it  upon  this 
salt,  and  then  cool  it  in  water.  You  will  find  that  now  a 
file  will  not  touch  it,  its  surface  being  as  hard  as  glass.  It 
is  carbonised  on  its  exterior,  and  made  into  hard  steel. 
This  can  be  done  in  another  way,  as  gun-locks,  snuffers, 
and  many  o\  her  things  are  case  hardened.  The}  are  en- 


KING'S  COLLEGE  SOYS.  345 


closed  in  an  iron  box,  with  cuttings  of  leather  and  bone- 
dust,  and  the  box  is  luted  about  with  clay  and  put  in  the 
fire.  All  the  pieces  get  red-hot,  and  the  leather  chars  and 
blackens,  and  some  of  it  combines  as  before  with  the  hot 
iron,  and  makes  it  into  steel.  And  our  friend  oxygen  is 
considerably  at  a  loss  in  this  case  to  find  his  way  in,  or  he 
would  make  black  scales  again  and  spoil  the  work ;  or  com- 
bine with  the  carbon  (or  charcoal)  and  make  it  into  gas. 
Probably,  however,  as  we  shut  up  a  little  oxygen  with  the 
contents  of  the  box,  this  change  DOES  take  place,  "but  Just  as 
the  gas  rises  the  iron  seizes  it,  and  holds  it  fast. 

And  now,  boys,  I  find  it  necessary  to  lay  down  the  pen, 
which  I  see  has  almost  run  away  with  me,  and  written  a 
good  many  more  pages  than  I  at  first  intended.  Since  I 
began  to  write  I  have  visited  the  workshops  at  King's 
College,  and  seen  a  sight  to  gladden  my  eyes.  Boys  car- 
pentering, boys  turning,  boys  filing ;  engines  of  real  use, 
with  single  and  double  cylinders,  finished,  and  in  course  of 
construction,  and  all  these  the  work  of  schoolboys,  whose 
hands  and  brains  are  alike  engaged  in  this  delightful 
branch  of  industry.  Let  no  one,  therefore,  pretend  that 
boys  are  not  capable  of  executing  good  work  of  this  kind  in 
a  masterly  manner,  or  that  what  they  do  is  always  child's- 
play,  or  I  shall  take  up  the  cudgels  in  their  behalf.  I 
have  also  seen,  in  the  Working- Men's  Exhibition,  a  very 

neat  little  engine,  made  by  a  boy  only  twelve  years  of  age, 

z 


34i".  '1HE  YOUXG  MECHANIC. 

which  makes  me  hope  and  believe  that  the  few  hints  upon 
wood  and  metal  work  which  I  have  here  thrown  together 
will  neither  be  unacceptable  nor  useless  to  those  whom  I 
address  in  these  pages.  In  this  hope  I  take  my  leave,  and 
gign  myself,  with  gratification  and  pride — 

The  boy  mechanic's  faithful  friend, 

THE  AUTHOR, 


of  the  Battens. 


EDITED   BY 

EVELYN  ABBOTT,  M.A.,  FELLOW  OF  BALLIOL  COLLEGE,  OXFORD. 


A  SERIES  of  biographical  studies  of  the  lives  and  work 
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With  the  life  of  each  typical  character  will  be  presentee 
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Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  the  Struggle  of  Protestantism  for  Exist- 
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Oxford. 

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Henry  of  Navarre,  and  the  Huguenots  in  France.  By  P.  F.WILLERT, 
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To  be  followed  by : 
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DAVIDSON,  M.A.,  Fellow  of  Balliol  College,  Oxford. 
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Oliver  Cromwell,  and  the  Rule  of  the  Puritans  in  England 

CHARLES  FIRTH,  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  ^ 
Marlborough,  and   England  as  a   Military'  Power.     By  C.  V- 

OMAN,  A.M.,  Fellow  of  All  Souls -G^Mjge,  Oxford. 

G.  Tf  PUTXA^SSONS 

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